Guyton and Hall Physiology Chapter 24 - Circulatory Shock and Its Treatment
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Guyton and Hall Physiology Chapter 24 - Circulatory Shock and Its Treatment

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary cause of neurogenic shock?

  • Sudden loss of vasomotor tone (correct)
  • Loss of blood due to severe burns
  • Excessive fluid intake
  • Infection spreading from other body parts

    • Which of these is NOT a characteristic of hypovolemic shock caused by plasma loss?

  • Reduced mean systemic filling pressure
  • Pooling of blood in the veins
  • Increased venous return to the heart (correct)
  • Diminished total blood plasma protein

    • What factor contributes to the loss of plasma in cases of severe burns?

  • Fluid leakage through denuded skin areas (correct)
  • Increased blood volume from hydration
  • Enhanced vasomotor tone
  • Decreased intestinal capillary pressure

    • Which condition is characterized by vasomotor paralysis following deep general anesthesia?

    <p>Neurogenic shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant outcome of vascular dilation in the context of shock?

    <p>Decreased venous return to the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is often confused with hypovolemic shock due to similar characteristics?

    <p>Septic shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can trigger septic shock in a patient?

    <p>Peritonitis from infection spread</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does plasma loss primarily affect blood composition in shock?

    <p>Reduces total blood plasma protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary cause of neurogenic shock following brain injuries?

    <p>Inactivation of vasomotor neurons in the brain stem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is commonly associated with septic shock?

    <p>Marked vasodilation in infected tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What condition results from prolonged ischemia in the brain exceeding 5-10 minutes?

    <p>Total inactivation of vasomotor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of infection can lead to severe neurogenic shock as a complication?

    <p>Skin infection transitioning into bloodstream</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which setting primarily leads to hypovolemic shock?

    <p>Loss of plasma and fluids from the circulatory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary effect of endotoxin during shock?

    <p>Enhanced cellular metabolism despite inadequate nourishment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is most significantly affected as shock progresses?

    <p>The liver experiences decreased nutrient support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of shock is specifically influenced by endotoxin?

    <p>Septic shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does diminished blood flow affect the brain in shock?

    <p>It ultimately depresses the vasomotor center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs in the body's circulatory system during the early stages of shock?

    <p>Intense sympathetic nervous system activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of shock, what does generalized cellular deterioration primarily affect?

    <p>Liver cells due to metabolism imbalance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of severe shock on the heart's function?

    <p>Cardiac depression due to toxic influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor emerges as the most critical in the lethal progression of shock?

    <p>Deterioration of the heart's function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be a result of circulatory arrest to the brain in the initial minutes of shock?

    <p>Increased sympathetic discharges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is primarily disrupted in neurogenic shock?

    <p>Sympathetic nervous system activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological mechanism helps maintain cerebral blood flow during compensated shock?

    <p>Autoregulation of local blood flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In compensated shock, which arterial pressure is crucial for maintaining normal blood flow through vital organs?

    <p>70 mm Hg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the recovery of a person experiencing nonprogressive shock?

    <p>Negative feedback control mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During compensated shock, which of the following typically does NOT happen?

    <p>Significant constriction of cerebral vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to a significant reduction in blood flow to other body areas during shock?

    <p>Vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of shock is described as having a degree insufficient to cause further progression of symptoms?

    <p>Nonprogressive shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors is least likely to contribute to the maintenance of coronary blood flow during decreased cardiac output?

    <p>Increased systemic vascular resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physiological response is primarily stimulated by baroreceptor reflexes during shock?

    <p>Increased sympathetic stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of neurogenic shock?

    <p>Vasodilation leading to low vascular resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to blood flow to the heart and brain areas in response to low arterial pressure during shock?

    <p>Maintained at normal levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one primary cause of hypovolemic shock mentioned in the content?

    <p>Severe plasma loss from the circulatory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition can cause severe plasma loss that leads to hypovolemic shock?

    <p>Intestinal obstruction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of cellular depletion of high-energy compounds in trauma-related shock?

    <p>Development of irreversible cellular damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of shock can occur without any loss of blood volume?

    <p>Neurogenic shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor primarily causes hypovolemic shock according to the content?

    <p>Reduction in overall blood volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What might be a minor contributing factor to hypovolemic shock aside from plasma loss?

    <p>Neurogenic shock due to loss of tone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the synthesis rate of new adenosine in the body mentioned in the content?

    <p>2% of normal cellular amount per hour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon results from severe plasma loss that leads to hypovolemic shock?

    <p>Reduced plasma volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant complication that can arise from trauma aside from shock?

    <p>Sepsis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do toxic factors from traumatized tissues play in shock development?

    <p>They have not been shown to be significant factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily increases arterial pressure during sympathetic constriction?

    <p>Increased total peripheral resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the central nervous system ischemic response?

    <p>Excess carbon dioxide buildup and lack of oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does sympathetic constriction of the veins play?

    <p>It maintains arterial pressure and venous return</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the second plateau in the arterial pressure curve associated with?

    <p>Central nervous system ischemic response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be described as the 'last-ditch stand' of sympathetic reflexes?

    <p>Central nervous system ischemic response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the heart muscle when arterial pressure falls below the required level for coronary blood flow?

    <p>It weakens and decreases cardiac output.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which substance has been experimentally proven to significantly contribute to the deterioration observed in some types of shock?

    <p>Endotoxin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable characteristic of the heart's performance during the initial hours of shock?

    <p>It exhibits significant deterioration after four hours.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the release of toxins by ischemic tissue contribute to the condition of shock?

    <p>It leads to further deterioration of the circulatory system.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the significant outcomes when cardiac output is compromised during shock?

    <p>Progressive deterioration of the heart muscle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major consequence of mitochondrial activity depression in liver cells during shock?

    <p>Deterioration of metabolic functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the release of hydrolases from lysosomes contribute to shock progression?

    <p>It causes intracellular deterioration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do the negative feedback mechanisms play in mild shock conditions?

    <p>They can reverse the effects of positive feedback.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of severe shock on the heart's function?

    <p>Depressed contractility of the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs to the lung's function during the progression of severe shock?

    <p>Development of pulmonary edema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is NOT a typical outcome of positive feedback in shock?

    <p>Reversal of metabolic decline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What could be a potential outcome if negative feedback mechanisms are overwhelmed in severe shock?

    <p>Progressive tissue necrosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the development of a vicious cycle in shock?

    <p>Progressive increases in shock severity occur.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which tissue areas become necrotic during shock?

    <p>Patchy blood flow and cellular death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of hormones like insulin during the later stages of shock?

    <p>Complete depression of insulin actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The irreversible stage of shock can be treated effectively with known therapies.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the progressive stage of shock, therapy is necessary to prevent worsening of the condition.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the nonprogressive (compensated) stage of shock, the body can fully recover without external therapy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During shock, the arterioles dilate to decrease total peripheral resistance.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sympathetic reflexes in shock primarily serve to decrease arterial pressure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When arterial pressure falls to 30 mm Hg, the heart muscle initially shows significant deterioration.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Progressive shock is characterized by a positive feedback cycle that worsens the condition of the heart.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Endotoxin has been proven to have no significance in the deterioration experienced in forms of shock.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The heart has a reserve capability that allows it to pump significantly more than its usual capacity.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the first hour of shock, the release of toxins by ischemic tissues plays a major role in the condition of the person.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Histamine release leads to an increase in vascular capacity due to venous constriction.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Septic shock can result from a bacterial infection that spreads through the bloodstream.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Histamine shock exhibits characteristics similar to those of septic shock.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An increase in capillary permeability leads to increased retention of fluid within the blood vessels.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Micro-blood clots can form in disseminated intravascular coagulation due to excessive use of clotting factors.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The early stages of septic shock typically show clear signs of circulatory collapse.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Histamine primarily causes red cell agglutination in response to bacterial toxins.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A significant effect of septic shock is a marked increase in venous return.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vasodilation in septic shock is primarily caused by the release of histamine.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In septic shock, the primary issue is the loss of plasma into infected tissues due to the integrity of capillary walls.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of shock with their descriptions:

    <p>Nonprogressive Shock = Compensated shock where arterial pressure doesn't fall below 70 mm Hg Progressive Shock = Shock that leads to further deterioration of circulation Hemorrhagic Shock = Shock caused by significant blood loss Neurogenic Shock = Shock caused by vasomotor paralysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components with their roles in maintaining blood flow:

    <p>Baroreceptor Reflexes = Stimulate sympathetic circulation Sympathetic Stimulation = Prevents significant constriction of cardiac vessels Autoregulation = Maintains local blood flow despite arterial pressure drops Vasoconstriction = Reduces blood flow to non-vital areas during shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the physiological mechanisms with their effects on shock recovery:

    <p>Negative Feedback Control = Attempts to restore cardiac output Sympathetic Reflexes = Compensate to prevent further deterioration Autoregulation = Helps maintain cerebral blood flow Vasodilation = Can lead to reduced blood flow in non-critical areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their definitions:

    <p>Compensated Shock = Shock that does not lead to further progression of symptoms Circulatory Deterioration = Result of insufficient arterial pressure over time Cardiac Output = Volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute Mean Arterial Pressure = Pressure that must remain above 70 mm Hg in shock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following factors with their roles in blood flow dynamics during shock:

    <p>Sympathetic Activation = Increases heart rate and contractility Vasoconstriction = Redirects blood flow to vital organs Local Autoregulation = Maintains blood flow despite systemic drops Sympathetic Reflexes = Induces vasoconstriction in less critical areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the physiological changes with their effects during shock:

    <p>Increased arterial pressure = Elevated total peripheral resistance Sympathetic vein constriction = Maintains venous return Central nervous system ischemic response = Extreme sympathetic stimulation Decreased cardiac output = Reduced blood flow to vital organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the concepts related to shock with their definitions:

    <p>Vicious cycle = Condition worsening due to feedback Last-ditch stand = Final attempt of the body to maintain function Plateau at 50 mm Hg = Level where brain experiences hypoxia Cardiac output = Volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the responses to their triggers during circulatory shock:

    <p>Sympathetic reflexes = Response to low arterial pressure CNS ischemic response = Triggered by excess carbon dioxide Vein constriction = Influenced by sympathetic stimulation Peripheral resistance = Increased by sympathetic activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the bodily response with its role during shock:

    <p>Increased arterial resistance = Maintains arterial pressure Vein constriction = Supports cardiac output Sympathetic activation = Promotes blood flow to critical organs Cerebral ischemic response = Stimulates sympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the components of blood flow regulation with their effects:

    <p>Arterial pressure increase = Prevents cardiac output decrease Sympathetic nervous system = Enhances venous return Peripheral resistance = Contributes to higher arterial pressure Hypoxia in the brain = Triggers central nervous system response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Hypovolemic Shock

    • Causes:
      • Intestinal Obstruction: Increased intestinal capillary pressure due to blocked venous blood flow leading to fluid leakage into intestinal walls and lumen. Reduced plasma volume due to loss of high protein fluid.
      • Severe Burns/Skin Denuding: Fluid loss through denuded skin areas significantly reduces plasma volume.
    • Characteristics:
      • Similar to hemorrhagic shock due to reduced blood plasma protein and plasma volume.

    Neurogenic Shock

    • Causes:
      • Sudden Loss of Vasomotor Tone: Massive dilation of veins, resulting in venous pooling of blood, reduced venous return to the heart, and decreased mean systemic filling pressure.
      • Factors:
        • Deep General Anesthesia: Depression of the vasomotor center leading to paralysis.
        • Spinal Anesthesia: Blocks sympathetic outflow, leading to paralysis.
        • Brain Damage: Concussion or contusions of the basal regions of the brain can cause paralysis.

    Septic Shock

    • Most Frequent Cause of Shock-Related Death
    • Causes:
      • Peritonitis: Infection spread from uterus or fallopian tubes, potentially due to instrumental abortions.
      • Endotoxin Release: From dead gram-negative bacteria, this toxin can cause:
        • Increased cellular metabolism despite inadequate nutrition.
        • Cardiac depression.
      • Other Causes:
        • Peritonitis from gastrointestinal rupture.
        • Generalized skin infection.
        • Gangrenous infection from gas gangrene bacilli.
        • Kidney or urinary tract infection.
    • Characteristics:
      • High fever
      • Marked vasodilation, especially in infected tissues
      • High cardiac output in some patients

    Shock Progression - Stages

    • Early Stages:
      • Intense sympathetic nervous system activity helps delay cardiac output depression and prevent arterial pressure drops.
    • Later Stages:
      • Diminished blood flow to brain's vasomotor center leads to its depression and eventual inactivation.
      • Sympathetic nervous system activity lowers as the vasomotor center becomes less active.
      • Cellular depletion of high-energy compounds occurs due to inadequate replenishment of adenosine triphosphate (ATP).
    • Severe Shock:
      • Generalized cellular deterioration occurs, especially affecting the liver due to lack of nutrients and potential exposure to toxins.

    Non-Progressive Shock (Compensated Shock)

    • Characteristics:
      • Shock is not severe enough to cause deterioration.
      • Sympathetic reflexes and other factors compensate to prevent further circulatory decline.
    • Recovery Factors:
      • Baroreceptor Reflexes: Powerful sympathetic stimulation of the circulation.

    Traumatic Shock

    • Causes:
      • Hemorrhage caused by trauma.
      • Extensive contusion of the body can damage capillaries, leading to plasma loss into tissues.
      • Resultant hypovolemia due to reduced plasma volume.
    • Possible Contributing Factor:
      • Neurogenic shock due to loss of vasomotor tone.

    Anaphylactic Shock and Histamine Shock

    • Characteristics:
      • Drastic drops in cardiac output and arterial pressure.
    • Cause:
      • Antigen-antibody reactions that occur rapidly following exposure to an allergen.

    Hemorrhage and Circulation

    • Decreasing blood volume leads to a decrease in cardiac output and arterial pressure.
    • Sympathetic nerve stimulation attempts to compensate for the loss of blood volume by constricting veins, increasing peripheral resistance and maintaining arterial pressure.
    • The sympathetic nervous system response is mediated by central nervous system ischemic response, triggered by oxygen deprivation and carbon dioxide buildup in the brain.
    • Reduced blood volume leads to a decrease in coronary blood flow, which weakens the heart and further decreases cardiac output. This creates a positive feedback loop, worsening the shock condition.
    • Prolonged low coronary blood flow leads to progressive heart deterioration with delayed onset.
    • In severe shock, the positive feedback mechanisms overwhelm the negative feedback systems, resulting in a vicious cycle of deterioration.

    Shock and its Deteriorative Effects

    • Shock causes a release of toxins from ischemic tissues, including histamine, serotonin, and tissue enzymes. Endotoxins are particularly important in certain types of shock.
    • Endotoxins cause mitochondrial depression in liver and other cells, disrupting cellular metabolism and causing widespread tissue deterioration.
    • Lysosomes break open, releasing hydrolases that further damage cells.
    • Anaerobic metabolism dominates in the late stages of shock, resulting in a buildup of lactic acid and metabolic acidosis.
    • Shock impairs the ability of the body to oxygenate blood and removes carbon dioxide, leading to tissue acidosis.
    • Shock causes patchy areas of tissue necrosis due to uneven blood flow.

    Treatments

    • Blood and plasma transfusions are used to restore blood volume in hemorrhagic and plasma-loss shock, respectively.
    • Electrolyte solutions are used to correct dehydration.
    • Sympathomimetic drugs, like epinephrine and norepinephrine, help to restore circulatory function by counteracting the vasodilating effects of histamine in anaphylactic shock.
    • Sympathomimetic drugs are less effective in hemorrhagic shock due to extensive damage to the heart and blood vessels.
    • Irreversible shock occurs when heart deterioration and tissue damage have reached a point where transfusions no longer provide relief.
    • Shock treatment must address the underlying cause and aim to prevent further deterioration.

    Stages of Shock

    • Shock is a life-threatening condition where the circulatory system fails to deliver enough oxygen to the body's tissues.
    • There are three stages:
      • Nonprogressive stage: The body's natural compensatory mechanisms are sufficient to restore normal blood flow.
      • Progressive stage: Shock worsens despite compensatory mechanisms.
      • Irreversible stage: Shock progresses to a point where all forms of therapy are ineffective.

    Compensatory Mechanisms in Shock

    • Decreased arterial pressure triggers powerful sympathetic reflexes.
    • Sympathetic reflexes lead to:
      • Arteriolar constriction: Increases peripheral resistance, helps to maintain blood pressure.
      • Venous constriction: Helps maintain venous return despite decreased blood volume.

    Cardiac Depression in Shock

    • A decrease in arterial pressure reduces coronary blood flow, leading to cardiac muscle weakening and decreased cardiac output.
    • This creates a positive feedback loop where shock worsens.

    Toxins Released by Ischemic Tissue

    • Shock can cause tissues to release toxic substances like histamine, serotonin, and tissue enzymes, further compromising circulation.

    Cardiac Depression Caused by Endotoxin

    • One of the key effects of endotoxin is the release of histamine, which:
      • Increases vascular capacity: Decreases venous return.
      • Dilates arterioles: Reduces arterial pressure.
      • Increases capillary permeability: Leads to fluid and protein loss into tissue spaces.

    Septic Shock

    • Septic shock refers to a widespread bacterial infection in the bloodstream.
    • It can lead to circulatory collapse due to:
      • Arteriolar dilation: In infected tissues.
      • High metabolic rate and vasodilation: Caused by bacterial toxin stimulation.
      • Blood sludging: Red blood cells clump together in response to degenerating tissues.
      • Disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC): Occurs when micro-blood clots form throughout the body.
      • Hemorrhage: Due to depletion of clotting factors.

    Physiology of Treatment in Shock

    • Treatment focuses on restoring blood volume and circulation.
    • Replacement Therapy: Includes blood transfusions and plasma administration.
    • Sympathomimetic Drugs:
      • Used to enhance sympathetic nervous system activity and constrict blood vessels.
      • Effective in anaphylactic shock but not as valuable in hemorrhagic shock.

    Effects of Circulatory Arrest on the Brain

    • Prolonged circulatory arrest can cause permanent brain damage.
    • More than 5-8 minutes of circulatory arrest can lead to brain damage in more than half of patients.
    • 10-15 minutes of arrest almost always results in severe permanent brain damage.
    • Brain damage was previously thought to be solely due to hypoxia.
    • Recent studies suggest preventing blood clots in the brain is crucial for minimizing damage.

    Hemorrhage and Blood Pressure

    • Hemorrhage decreases both cardiac output and arterial pressure.
    • Sympathetic nervous system activation increases total peripheral resistance, which does not have a positive effect on the heart's ability to pump blood.
    • Arterial pressure reaches a second plateau at around 50 mmHg, and this is due to the central nervous system ischemic response.
    • The central nervous system ischemic response is a "last-ditch stand" of the sympathetic reflexes to maintain arterial pressure.

    Blood Flow in the Brain and Heart

    • Despite decreased cardiac output, sympathetic stimulation does not significantly constrict cerebral or cardiac vessels.
    • Both the brain and heart rely on local blood flow autoregulation to maintain adequate blood flow even with moderate drops in arterial pressure.
    • Blood flow is maintained in the brain and heart as long as the mean arterial pressure does not fall below 70 mmHg.

    Progressive and Nonprogressive Hemorrhagic Shock

    • Shock that progresses due to an initial decrease in arterial pressure is called progressive shock.
    • Shock that is not severe enough to cause its own progression and eventually recovers is called nonprogressive or compensated shock.

    Compensatory Mechanisms in Nonprogressive Shock

    • Baroreceptor reflexes stimulate the sympathetic nervous system, leading to increased heart rate and vasoconstriction.
    • The sympathetic nervous system helps to increase venous return and maintain arterial pressure.

    Septic Shock

    • Septic shock is a widespread bacterial infection that spreads through the blood.
    • Widespread bacterial infection leads to vasodilation in the infected tissues, due to histamine release and high metabolic rates.
    • Septic shock can lead to reduced venous return, reduced arterial pressure, and increased capillary permeability, causing rapid loss of fluid and protein into the tissue spaces.
    • As the infection progresses, circulatory collapse occurs due to bacterial toxins and loss of plasma into the infected tissues.

    Irreversible Shock

    • Irreversible shock is a stage where therapy is unable to save the person's life.
    • Despite the ability to temporarily increase cardiac output and arterial pressure, irreversible deterioration continues, leading to death.
    • Multiple deteriorative changes happen in the heart muscle, affecting the ability to pump blood over a long period.

    Acidosis in Shock

    • Shock leads to tissue acidosis from poor oxygen delivery.
    • Anaerobic metabolism leads to lactic acid buildup.
    • Reduced blood flow impairs carbon dioxide removal, contributing to acidosis.

    Blood Viscosity in Shock

    • Blood viscosity increases due to hemorrhage, which can exacerbate shock.

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    Guyton and Hall Physiology Chapter 24 - Circulatory Shock PDF

    Description

    Explore the causes and characteristics of hypovolemic and neurogenic shock in this quiz. Understand how conditions like intestinal obstruction and severe burns impact plasma volume, as well as the effects of sudden loss of vasomotor tone. Test your knowledge on the underlying mechanisms of these critical medical conditions.

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