Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

• The biological process by which offspring are produced from their parent or parents
• Reproduction ensures continuous existence of living organisms and genetic material improvement
• There are 2 types of reproduction: Asexual and Sexual

Sexual Reproduction

• Utilizes sex cells known as gametes
• Involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form a zygote
• This process results in genetic variability

Asexual Reproduction

• It does not involve gametes; parts of a mature organism develop into new individuals
• Offspring are genetically identical to the parent

Asexual Reproduction: Binary Fission

• Separation of the body into two new bodies
• Common in single-celled organisms like bacteria and paramecium

Asexual Reproduction: Budding

• A new organism develops as an outgrowth from the parent body, known as a bud
• Once grown, the new organism detaches from the parent body
• Example: hydra

Asexual Reproduction: Fragmentation

• The parent body breaks into several pieces, where each piece grows into a new individual
• Example: planaria and echinoderms

Asexual: Vegetative Reproduction

• A plant part such as stems, leaves, roots or turions are used to reproduce new plants

Female Reproductive System

• Ovaries are the female reproductive organs
• Oogenesis is the development of ovarian follicles
• Secretion of estrogen and progesterone
• Fallopian tubes (oviducts) are the site where fertilization occurs
• The uterus (womb) includes the endometrium and myometrium

Male Reproductive System

• Testes are the male reproductive organs
• The scrotum is the coldest part of the male's body
• Seminiferous Tubules produce sperm via spermatogenesis
• Hormone regulation involves Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone, Follicle stimulating hormone, and Luteinizing hormone

Animal Development: 1. Gametogenesis

• Spermatogenesis divides equally
• Oogenesis divides unequally
• Ovulation happens to female once a month

Animal Development: 2. Fertilization

• Out of millions of sperm cells, only one fertilizes the egg cell

Animal Development: 3. Implantation

• Implantation, or nidation, occurs when the blastocyst hatches, attaches, adheres, and invades the uterine wall
• The blastocyst secretes Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), hormones in pregnancy testing

Animal Development: 4. Gastrulation

• Involves 3 derm layers: ectoderm, endoderm, and blastopore
• The archenteron, also called the gastrocoel, becomes the primitive digestive tube or gut

Animal Development: 5. Embryonic Stage

• Formation of 4 membranes supports, protects, and nourishes the embryo: yolk sac, allantois, amnion, and chorion
• Development of the placenta
• Organ formation occurs
• The ectoderm becomes nervous tissue
• The mesoderm becomes muscles and skeletons
• The entoderm becomes the intestine and other digestive system

Animal Development: 6. Fetal Stage

• Organ differentiates further and grows

Hormonal regulation

• Gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (Gnrh) stimulates the release of 2 hormones
• They are: Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle-stimulating Hormone (FSH)

Hormonal Glands

• The Pituitary gland secretes two gonadotrophic hormones

Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

• Male: causes the testes to produce sperm
• Female: causes the growth of an ovarian follicle and it causes the follicle cells to secrete estrogen

Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

• Male: causes testes to secrete testosterone
• Female: causes ovulation and causes to secrete progesterone

Plant Reproduction: Structure of a Flower

• Stamen: male portion of a flower, made up of an anther and a filament
• Carpel/Pistil: female portion of a flower
• Stigma: sticky; to trap pollen
• Style: hollow tube which connects stigma and ovary
• Ovary: produces female gametes (ovules)

Monoecious

• Stamens and pistils occur on separate flowers, but on the same plant

Dioecious

• Staminate and pistillate flowers occur on separate plants

Plant Development

• Staminate and pistillate flowers occur on separate plants

Male Gametohyte

• Inside the anthers' microsporangia, male gametophytes divide by meiosis to generate haploid microspores, which in turn, undergo mitosis and give rise to pollen grains
• Pollen grains contain two cells:
  • one generative cell
  • Cell that will become the pollen tube cell

Female Grastohyte

• The ovule inside the ovary contains the megasporangium
• A megasporocyte undergoes meiosis within each megasporangium, forming four megaspores

Pollination and Fertilization

• Pollination: the transfer of pollen from an anther to a receptive stigma
  • Agents: animals, wind, water, humans
• Fertilization: one sperm and egg combine, forming a diploid zygote, the future embryo
• Double Fertilization: another sperm fuses with the 2n polar nuclei, forming a triploid cell that will develop into the endosperm

Embryo Development

• Ovules become the seed
• Ovary matures into the fruit

Seed Germination and Growth

• Germination is the resumption of growth and development after a period of seed dormancy

Plant and Animal Nutrition

• Nutrients help living organisms develop their bodies, grow, heal damaged body parts, and provide energy for life and activity
• Two types of Nutrition
  • Autotrophic Nutrition: can produce their own food
  • Heterotrophic Nutrition: cannot produce their food

Digestion

• The mechanical and chemical process by which complex food substances are broken down into smaller substances

Parts of Digestive System: 1. Mouth

• Produces saliva, where mechanical mastication of food takes place to form a bolus

Parts of Digestive System: 2. Esophagus

• A muscular tube that conducts peristalsis and serves as a passageway for food

Parts of Digestive System: 3. Stomach

• A muscular sac containing gastric juices that helps to break down food chemically

Parts of Digestive System: 4. Liver

• Produces bile that helps in the digestion of fats

Parts of Digestive System: 5. Gall Bladder

• Helps store bile and discharge it from the cystic duct

Parts of Digestive System: 6. Pancreas

• Releases pancreatic juices and enzymes which help in the digestion of protein and starch

Parts of Digestive System: 7. Small Intestine

• A tube containing villi that absorbs nutrients and water from food

Parts of Digestive System: 8. Large Intestine

• A tube that absorbs water and salts from undigested material as food and eliminates waste products

Parts of Digestive System: 9. Anus

• An opening that eliminates feces

Digestive Processes

- Ingestion: taking in food materials
- Digestion: Breaking down food into smaller pieces
- Absorption: movement of nutrients, water, and electrolytes from the small intestine into the cell, then into the blood
- Elimination: undigested material passes out of the system

Human Digestive Processes

- Mouth: Breaking down of food
- Esophagus: Connects mouth and stomach
- Stomach: Gastric Juices breaks the food chemically
- Liver: Breaks down of fats
- Gall Bladder: stores bile
- Pancreas: Digestion of protein and starch
- Small intestine: absorption of nutrients
- Large Intestine: reabsorbs water
- anus: eliminates feces

Feeding Mechanism of Animals

- Substrate-Feeders: Animals live on a food source and eat through it
- Filter-Feeders: Aquatic animals strain food particles from water
- Fluid-Feeders: animals suck fluid containing nutrients from other animals
- Bulk-Feeders: Animals break down and swallow large amounts of food

Animal Nutrients

- Required Nutrients: Carbohydrates, Fats and Proteins
- Essential Nutrients: Amino Acids, Fatty Acids, Vitamins and Minerals

Feeding Mechanism of Carnivorous Plants

• Trapping Mechanism
  • Insect - Eating plants that capture and digest their prey through pitfalls and traps

Plant Nutrients

- Macronutrients: Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorus, Sulfur, Calcium, Magnesium
- Micronutrients: Iron, Boron, Zinc, Manganese, Chlorine, Molybdenum, Copper

Circulatory system of Animals

• Functions of the Circulatory System
  • Circulate blood throughout entire body
  • Transport of oxygen to cells
  • Transport of CO2 away from cells
  • Movement of immune system components
  • Transport of endocrine gland secretions

Types of Circulatory System

- Open Circulatory System: Blood flows freely through cavities
- Close Circulatory System: Blood flows through arteries and veins connected by capillaries

Circulatory system of animals: Simple Organisms

• Diffusion enables organisms with a two-cell layer covering to get gases and excrete wastes
  • Diffusion: Movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration

Division of Circulatory System

- Pulmonary Circulation: Blood flows between the heart and the lungs to become oxygenated
- Systematic Circulation: Blood is distributed to the tissues and other systems of the body

Parts of Animal Circulatory System: 1. Heart

• A muscle about the size of a fist (in humans)
• Pumps blood throughout the body

Chambers of the Heart

- There are 4 chambers of the heart
- Right Atrium and Left Atrium
- Right Ventricle, and Left Ventricle

Valves of the Heart

- Pulmonary Valve: Opens when the Atria Contracts
- Aortic Valve: Opens when the ventricles contract
- Tricuspid Valve: Opens when the Atria contracts
- Mitral Valve: Opens when the ventricles contract

Parts of Animal Circulatory System: 2. Artery

• A thick and elastic red-colored muscular wall carrying blood away from the heart

Parts of Animal Circulatory System: 3. Veins

• Thinner blue-colored muscular walls that return blood back to the heart

Arteries

- Aorta: Biggest Artery in the body, distributes blood to brain & left arm
- Carotid: Distributes blood to head, right arm & body
- Pulmonary Artery: Transports blood to lungs

Veins

- Pulmonary Veins: Return blood from lungs
- Superior Vena Cava: returns blood From upper body
- Inferior Vena Cava: returns blood From lower body

Parts of Animal Circulatory System: 4. Capillary

• Tiny one-cell thick vessel that connects arteries and veins, carrying blood and nutrients inside tissues and organs

Parts of Animal Circulatory System: 5. Blood

- Erythrocytes: Red Blood Cells (RBC), Remove waste and deliver oxygen
- Leukocytes: White Blood Cells (WBC), Help defend the body against infection
- Thrombocytes: Platelets form a clot and prevent bleeding

Blood Filtration

• Blood gets filtered through blood capillaries in the kidneys
• Useful substances will be absorbed back, while wastes will be removed as urine

Vascular System of Plants

• Transports water and nutrients from the roots to different parts of the plant

Xylem and Phloem

- Xylem: Carries water and minerals upward from roots to different parts
- Phloem: Moves water and nutrients throughout the different parts of the plant

Nervous System

• A complex network of neurons specialized to carry messages
• Sundivided into two: Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Central Nervous System (cns)

• Referred to as "central" because it combines information from the entire body and coordinates activity across the whole organism
• Made up of brain and spinal cord
• Parts of Brain: Cerebrum, Cerebellum and Brain Stem

Brain

• Weighs about 1.5kg (human brain)
• Protected by the skull or cranium
• Divided into 3: Forebrain, Midbrain, and HindBrain

Forebrain

- Thalamus: processes information and relays it to the cerebrum
- Hypothalamus: Homeostatic control of most organs
- Cerebrum: Controls the qualities of the mind: personality, intelligence, learning, perception and emotion

Cerebral Cortex

- Frontal Lobe: olfactory bulb and motor cortex
- Parietal Lobe: processing somatosensation and proprioception
- Occipital Lobe: Vision
- Temporal Lobe: processing sounds and memory formation

Brainstem

- Medulla Oblongata: regulates breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
- Pons: Connects the forebrain with medulla and cerebellum
- Cerebellum: Controls posture and balance

Spinal Cord

• Tracts of nerve fibers that allow two-way conduction of nerve impulses. Cervical, Thoracic, and lumbar, Sacral and coccygeal

Peripheral Nervous System

• A Network of nerves spread across the body
  • 43 pairs of nerves
  • 12 Cranial nerves
  • 31 Spinal nerves

1. Sensory Neurons

- Mechanoreceptors (touch)
- Thermoreceptors (Temperature)
- Nocireceptors (pain)
- Chemoreceptors (Oxygen, glucose, electrolytes, etc.)

2. Interneurons

• Receive information from sensory neurons; process and generate message to motor neurons

3. Motor Neurons

- Create muscle contraction
- Create muscle inhibition

Peripheral Nervous System (pns)

• Divided into two: Sensory-Somatic Nervous System and Autonomic Nervous System

Sensory-Somatic Nervous System

• Voluntary control of skeletal muscles

Autonomic Nervous System

• Controls bodily functions without conscious control
• Controls involuntary responses
• Divided into two: sympathetic and parasympathetic
• Controls the: glands, smooth muscles, cardiac muscles

Sympathetic Nervous System

• "Fight or Flight" Response
• stimulates salivation, slows heartbeat, stimulates digestion, stimulates bile release, stimulates peristalsis and secretions

Parasympathetic nervous system

• "Rest and digest"
• It inhibit salivation, accelerates heartbeat, inhibits digestion, stimulates glucose release, relaxes bladder

Plants' Nervous Control

• Plant do not have nervous system, but they can sense the changes in their environment and respond to it
• Presence of photoreceptors detect the quality and quantity of light
  • Phototropism - plant grow toward or away from light
  • Gravitropism - directional growth in response to gravity
  • Thigmotropism - directional response to touch
• Plant cells are capable of generating electrical impulses called action potentials

Respiration

• To metabolize, organisms use basic mechanisms like diffusion to inhale oxygen and expel carbon dioxide

Aerobic Respiration

• A respiration that uses oxygen to produce energy from food

Anaerobic respiration

• A respiration that does not use oxygen to breakdown food molecule

Skin System

• Animals such as amphibians who dwell in damp environment breathe in oxygen through their moist body surface

Gills System

• Gills are used by animals such as fishes to take in dissolved oxygen from water

Tracheal System

• Used by animals like insects to enable gas exchange

Lung System

• Inside the cavities of terrestrial animals, lungs are a pair of organs separated into small chambers packed with capillaries

Functions of Respiratory System

• Facilitate the exchange of gases between air and blood
• Supply oxygen to blood and the entire body
• Remove and dispose carbon dioxide away from the body

Parts of Respiratory System of animals: 1. Mouth & Nose

• The opening where air enters into the respiratory system

Parts of Respiratory System of animals: 2. Pharynx and Larynx

- Pharynx - The tube that brings air into the trachea
 - Larynx - Part of the respiratory system that produces sounds

Parts of Respiratory System of animals: 3. Trachea

• It connects larynx & bronchi
• Contains epiglottis that covers the larynx

Parts of Respiratory System of animals: 4. Bronchi

• It connects and brings air inside the lungs

Parts of Respiratory System of animals: 5. Lungs

• It contains alveoli where the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen takes place

Parts of Respiratory System of animals: 6. Alveoli

• Area where exchange of gases takes place.
• Oxygen is distributed in the body, while carbon dioxide is released outside the body

Skeleton

• Rigid structure that provides protective and supportive framework to organisms
• Functions: support, protection, production of blood cells, and storage of minerals

Exoskeleton

• Bony structure found externally
• Found in Vertebrates - skin derivatives (dermis and epidermis)

Classification of bones

• Based on location

  • A. Axial- located in the median axis of the body - Skull - Hyoid bone - Vertebral column - Sternum - Ribcage
  • B. Appendicular- Located at the sides of the body - Girdles - Forelimbs - Hindlimbs

• Based on shape

  • Long bones- Elongated and cylindrical
  • Short bones- small and cubed
  • Irregular bones- varied shapes that permit connections with other bones
  • Round bones- Circular in Shape
  • Flat bones- Platelike with broad surfaces

Components of Bones

- Tendon - connects muscle to bone
- Ligament - Connects bone to bone

Components of skeleton

Bone cells - Esteoblast - responsible for secreting matrix, ostein - Esteoclast - performs bone reabsorption; they breakdown bone and deposit calcium and phosphate in the blood. Important to the growth and repair of the bones

Smooth Muscles

• Act on the lining of the body's passageways and hollow internal organs
• These muscles are involuntary

Cardiac Muscles

• Forms the wall of the heart and is responsible for the contraction of the heart
• It is involuntary

Skeletal Muscles

• Attached to bone that causes body movements
• Almost all skeletal muscles are under voluntary control

Origin and Insertion of Muscles

- Origin - end that does not move
- Insertion - end that moves when muscles contract

Movement of muscles

- Adduction - moving body part toward the midline
- Abduction - moving body part away from midline
- Rotation - turning a body part around its own axis
- Circumduction - moving in a circle at a joint

Homeostasis

• Is a state of physiological equilibrium/balance
• The body is constantly adapting to stimuli
• Responds to changes in the internal and external environment

Positive and Negative Feedback

• Positive Feedback - Happens when the product of a reaction leads to an increase in that reaction
• Negative Feedback - Happens when the product of a reaction leads to a decrease in that reaction
• All body systems work together to control diseases, body chemicals and body temperature

Adaptation

• An organism's response to change/s

Thermoregulation

• Process of keeping one's body temperature constant

Controlling Body Changes

- Sensors - data collection & change detection
- Control Center - The brain receives the data and delivers a message
- Communication system - Delivers messages to target organs and tissues via nerve impulses and hormones
- Targets - organ, tissue, or cell that are change-responsive

Homeotherms

• Can regulate one's own body temperature

Poikilotherm

• Needs a source of heat in order to regulate one's own body temperature

Sweating and Shivering

• When the body is hot, sweat glands are stimulated to release sweat
• When the body is cold, the body shakes uncontrollably

Ectotherm

• An animal that is dependent on external sources of body heat
• Often contrasted with endotherm and compare with poikilotherm

Endotherm

• Those that maintain a constant body temperature independent of the environment

Metabolism

• The total amount of biochemical reactions involved in maintaining the living condition of cells in an organism
• All living organisms require energy for different essential processes and for producing new organic substances

Anabolism

• Process involves building up or synthesizing compounds from simpler substances required by the cells
• Requires and stores energy

Catabolism

• Involves breaking down larger organic molecules into smaller molecules
• This metabolic process releases energy