Seven Years' War: Global Conflict and British Victory

Lecture 1: The Seven Years War

• Britain was a constitutional monarchy, with the king having limited powers and Parliament consisting of the elected House of Commons and the aristocratic House of Lords

• A Prime Minister, appointed by the King, led the government.

• The House of Commons had less power compared to the wealthy aristocrats due to the ways its officials were chosen

• Britain and France competed for global colonial power, economic dominance, and control over territories in the Americas, Africa, and India, causing tension between the countries.

• Britain won the Seven Years' War due to its advanced military, including the Royal Navy

• The Royal Navy cut off France from the sea and trade routes.

• Stronger military and colonial support also led to victory

• Britain gained Canada from France, Florida from Spain, and established the British Raj in India.

Lecture 1 Readings

• Peter Kalm documented 18th-century English society and economic conditions leading up to the Seven Years' War
• Insights included Britain's agricultural practices, colonial trade, and social class differences
• Expansion of the British Empire shaped England's domestic environment

Lecture 2 Readings

• Brewer explored cultural and intellectual movements in Britain during the 18th century Enlightenment period

• Artistic expressions were valued for contributing to national identity and a sense of superiority

• This period was marked by imperial rivalries and fighting for control

• "The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders" highlights a challenging upbringing and survival in 18th-century British society, navigating strict social classes and economic hardships impacted by Britain's imperialist goals

• Trade routes and imperial expansion were connected to war

Lecture 2: The Industrial Revolution

• Industrialization involves the shift from agricultural-based industries to industrialized manufacturing
• Mechanization of production occurs in textiles and transportation, leading to the creation of factories.
• Britain was abundant in coal and iron, fueling steam engines and factories
• Technology advanced with the invention of the steam engine and machinery for mass production.
• Industrialization led to urbanization, with people moving to cities for factory work
• The middle class grew as a result.
• Industrialization was a gradual evolution spanning the 17th-19th centuries
• Infrastructure and accompanying social and economic changes developed gradually over time

Lecture 3: The American Revolution and Political Radicals

• The American Revolution was enabled by Enlightenment ideologies of liberty, self-governance, and human rights
• American colonies wanted economic independence due to increased taxes resulting from the costly Seven Years' War.
• Conflict between Britain and France in the Americas, along with British troops in the colonies, caused issues.
• Heavy taxation and economic control by the British government, like the Stamp Act and the Tea Act, prompted the revolution
• American colonists lacked representation in the British government
• In 1776, Americans established a new, independent country
• Rights were expanded by establishing a democracy with elected officials.

Lectures 2 & 3 Readings

• Bailyn explores the political thoughts influencing American colonists to fight for independence

• The revolution was driven by Enlightenment ideas of liberty, governance, and individual rights

• Colonists viewed British policies as undermining their rights

• Pamphlets, essays, and political discussions reflected fear of tyranny and shaped American Revolution ideologies.

• Hampden's pamphlet reflects American colonists' opposition to British oppression

• It points out the threat of authoritarian control and calls for citizens to fight for civil liberties.

• Political complacency should not occur

• Collective action is important to protect political rights

• "Thoughts on the Late Declaration of the American Congress" critiques the American Declaration of Independence, questioning the legitimacy of the colonists' desire for independence

• The writer argues that colonist issues with the British government were exaggerated and resistance movements were unjustified

• Defends the British government and undermines the legitimacy of American independence.

Lecture 4: Battle of Trafalgar, Anti-Slavery, and Free-Trade

• Admiral Nelson was a war hero and led the victory in the Battle of Trafalgar and died as a result of it

• His grand funeral served as a political statement

• The funeral validated the ongoing war between Britain and Napoleon and unified the country amidst war.

• The British Royal Navy's victory against Napoleon and French forces established Britain as a military powerhouse

• Allowed Britain to expand control in Europe and other areas.

• The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815), a war between Britain and France, were ongoing

• Simultaneously, the Industrial Revolution was happening

• Britain expanded control in Africa and India

• Napoleon was defeated because the British naval blockade stopped Napoleon's forces from accessing supply and trade routes

• Other European powers joined Britain against France after Napoleon's failed invasion of Russia.

• British anti-slavery and free-trade policies were connected

• Britain's economic industrialization and the rise of capitalism made free trade more sustainable

• Ending slave trade made their economy no longer dependent on slave labor

• Abolitionists started moral and anti-slavery campaigns

• With economic changes and a shift to an industrialized economy, the slave trade became less profitable

• Free trade promoted economic growth encouraging competition

• Britain, leading in the Industrial Revolution spreading across Europe, benefited from a global open and domestic market.

Lecture 5: The Reform Act

• The Reform Act expanded voting rights to middle-class men
• Redistributed seats to the House of Commons for more equal representation
• Limited government powers of the aristocracy or the House of the Lords
• Factors include social and economic pressures from the growing middle class due to rapid urbanization
• The middle class wanted political representation
• Aristocrats in Parliament opposed the bill, as the Reform Act weakened their political power
• Immense public pressure, rallies, and protests advocated for the act to pass for equal political representation.
• The Reform Act marked a significant change in the structure of Parliament
• Only middle-class men were given the right to vote

Lectures 4 & 5 Readings

• Wollstonecraft was a suffragist and advocated for women's education and equality
• She argued that women's perceived inferiority stems from a lack of education rather than differences, critiquing male-dominated social structures.

Lecture 6: Religion, Health, Gender, and the Poor

• Rapid industrialization and urbanization led to overcrowded cities with poor infrastructure and sanitation.
• Large urban areas had poor living and working conditions, as well as healthcare
• Cholera and typhus outbreaks devastated the working class
• There was a significant wealth gap between the rich and poor.
• Christianity was central to everyday life, with the Church of England having influence in government and society.
• The Industrial Revolution and urbanization allowed the middle class to grow, giving them greater economic and political influence, especially with the Reform Act where now middle-class men could vote.
• Victorian history saw technological advancements and economic growth
• There was still significant social inequality; the wealth gap was large, and the working classes lacked equal rights and political representation.

Lecture 6 Readings

• RJ Morris explores the development of the British middle class in the 19th century due to industrialization and urbanization, and their impact on social structures.

• Religion, gender, and new societal norms shaped the middle-class identity.

• The middle class was defined by being deserving versus the undeserving or working class.

• Thompson discusses how the Industrial Revolution transformed time and labor

• Industrial capitalism introduced a strict time schedule impacting social life, religious practices, and the daily routine of the working class

• Argues that this shift affected health and gender roles, influencing domestic life and shaping working-class conditions.

• Engles critiques the living conditions of the working class during and after the Industrial Revolution

• Overcrowded housing, poor sanitation and infrastructure, and health crises are impacting the working class

• Economic exploitation became prominent in industrialized England, leading to social inequality; women in factories faced labor exploitation and domestic burdens.

Lecture 7: Imperial High Noon

• Domestic industrial growth depended on the global free market and international trade
• Imperial expansion linked to economic growth justified Britain's imperialist goals.
• The empire expanded rapidly due to economic motivations, imperial expansionist goals for natural resources, trade routes, and wealth
• New technology and transportation methods were used, like the steam engine and railroad
• 'Scramble for Africa' saw Britain competing and maintaining control over parts of Africa.
• Britain economically benefited domestically and through its colonies by controlling trade
• Maintaining and controlling the empire was costly through wars and nationalist movements
• There was moral and ethical criticism for exploitation and oppression, as well as racism

Lecture 8: The Boer War and the Rise of the Welfare State

• The Boer War was fought between the British Empire and 2 Boer States in South Africa

• It started over control of natural resources in Boer territories

• The war exposed vulnerabilities in the British government and military

• Criticisms arose over treatment and concentration camps of African communities

• The war sparked criticism of the British presence in other countries and colonies.

• Poor conditions in Britain and colonies showed the need for social reforms like healthcare and welfare programs

• The Liberal and Labour parties represented the working classes and their rights

• The parties pushed for welfare programs to benefit the working class, like school lunches, worker's pensions, healthcare, and health insurance.

Lectures 7 & 8 Readings

• McClintock connects British imperialism with race, gender, and classes
• Imperial goals shaped domestic culture and reinforced social hierarchies in England and the British Empire.
• Consumer goods are a symbol of imperial power, with the British viewing themselves as racially superior
• The creation of the British Empire was masked as exploration and oppression of colonies.
• Kipling's poem is about the colonial 'duty' or the white man's burden to civilize non-Western communities
• The poem presents imperialism as a moral obligation, even if colonies resist
• Utilizes justifications by Western countries by dehumanizing the colonized people
• Justifications are narratives about colonized communities arguing a need to colonize without showing exploitation/violence that coincides with colonization.

Lecture 9: 1910 Before the Fall

• Victorian societal rules and structure survived into the 20th century
• Post-Victorian politics shifted towards a parliamentary democracy
• The House of Lords' power decreased and government control shifted to citizens
• The suffrage movement for women pushed for the right to vote and political representation.
• Political changes and reforms in Parliament reduced the House of Lords' power
• Growing welfare programs supported the working classes, like the Suffrage movement and the Irish Home Rule Movement
• The year 1910, showed the building tensions for World War I and was more of an evolutionary change
• Britain's alliances with Russia and France escalated tensions with Germany
• Naval competition between Britain and Germany increased tensions.
• Global and imperial competition in Africa pushed Germany to escalate to war
• Britain signed a neutrality agreement with Belgium and then, in 1914, Germany declared war.

Lecture 10: WWI and Passchendaele

• World War I was the first war that involved trench warfare, which had horrific conditions

• Technological advancements such as machine guns and planes

• Chemical/biological weapons were first used during this war

• The Battle of Passchendaele was known for massive casualties and horrible conditions.

• The war lasted due to trench warfare, alliances, and difficulty advancing

• Military leaders adapted slowly to new military tactics and technology

• Nations improved their supply chains and industrial outputs for the war effort.

• The war ended because Europe's central powers were exhausting resources (lack of infrastructure, economic support, and military)

• America entered the war with troops and new supplies helped the allied powers and Germany experienced political unrest.

Lectures 9 & 10 Readings

• Lloyd George advocated for progressive social reforms to address poverty and inequality in Britain

• There was a need for state intervention to support welfare policies like healthcare, pension, and unemployment support

• His speech revealed concerns of social stability and the working class' conditions and addressed tensions between the government and the aristocrats/conservative opposition.

• "London Times Report on Mr. Redmond and Ulster, 1913" covered the Irish Nationalist Leader, Mr. Redmond's stance on the Home Rule Movement.

• He wanted Ireland to become an independent nation, which faced opposition from the Ulster Unionists.

• Displayed political tensions between the British and the Irish, as well as the looming World War I.

• "London Times Report on the Eve of Ulster Day, 1912" discusses Ulster Day preparations

• Unionists were signing a covenant to oppose the Irish Home Rule Movement.

• Captured the political divisions among the Irish and between the British and Irish

• Displayed the threat of civil war in Ireland, as most Irish citizens want independence

• Fussell's "Great War" examines World War I's effect on cultural perception of war

• Advances in technology and weapons marked the first for many soldiers

• The disillusionment and irony the soldiers experienced opposed the government's perspective of being a hero, and instead was a horrific understanding

• War trauma is connected to cultural and societal changes in Britain post-WWI.

Lecture 11: WWI, Depression, and Democracy

• World War I's causes include alliance shifting, imperial rivalries, and military power
• The Great Depression resulted from events like the stock market crash in 1929, war debt in America and Europe, and the collapse of the global market/trade.
• The Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires collapsed while new countries and governments were established; borders were redrawn.
• Britain's empire expanded, but their power dwindled
• A rise of nationalist movements in their colonies and and domestic recession post-war impacted the country
• Post war there was also greater political power and rights for women and the working class, a rise of of labor movements and political extremism.

Lecture 12: The Munich Agreement of 1938

• Britain supported the Munich Agreement as an appeasement policy, to avoid another long war by conceding to Hitler's demands
• Britain's economy was unprepared and unable to handle another war
• The British government felt like the Munich Agreement would ensure peace in Europe
• Germany's invasion of Poland and Czechoslovakia caused World War II
• The Munich Agreement emboldened Hitler to invade, pushing Britain and France to declare war on Poland.

Lectures 11 & 12 Readings

• Forrester's "Twopence to Cross" follows the struggles of average British citizens after WWI and during the Great Depression

• Reflects social and economic hardships where the working class was experiencing rising unemployment, poverty, and a wealth gap

• Economic instability undermined public confidence and contributed to political disillusionment after WWI.

• Strachey's "Is Communism Inevitable" discusses the appeal of communism during the Great Depression and economic instability

• The failures of capitalism made communism seem inevitable for the working class

• Criticizes democracy for its inability to address economic inequality, noting in its place, communism can fix the the inequality.

• Moseley was a leader of the British Fascist Union promoting facism as a solution for England's social/economic issues

• He argues that parliamentary democracy is weak, advising Britain to establish an authoritarian government

• nationalism, economic self-sufficiency, and a strong opposition to communism.

• Mosley's support reflects the rise of facism and authoritarianism in Europe after WWI.

Lecture 13: WWII and Welfare

• The English Channel and British Navy prevented England from a land invasion and protected trade routes

• The British Empire bolstered England's economy with resources

• Pressures from the war effort led to the government expanding the welfare state

• Food rations and welfare programs were put in place

• War effort highlighted social inequalities concerning healthcare, housing, and access to food

• The Beveridge Report, the foundation for the welfare state during/after the war, included universal healthcare, education, and pensions (social security).

• British resistance kept the allied powers alive, Britain and Germany trying to cut off each other's trade routes

• The U.S. joining the war shifted the balance towards the allied powers

• D-Day and the Invasion of Normandy allowed the allied to gain more land from Germany and push them into Germany.

Lecture 14: India and Immigration

• India gained independence in 1947 due to pressure from nationalist movements
• Non-violent resistance coupled with economic strain and Britain's declining control pressured the British government to grant India independence.
• Post-war themes: decline of the British empire, decolonization, post-war recovery, and immigration
• Britain was no longer a global superpower.

Lectures 13 & 14 Readings

• Levine's "Propaganda for Democracy" discusses british propaganda used during World War II to promote democratic values and a national identity

• The British government emphasized sacrifice, freedom, and moral justifications for forces- justifying wartime policies and mobilizing war efforts.

• These perceptions of the war were only reinforced, hence post-war welfare programs.

• Calder critiques the British narrative that dying or joining the war is “good,” highlighting social tension and inequalities during the war

• National unity overlooked the struggles of marginalized groups and the working class

• Demand for social reforms and welfare support during and after the war created the welfare state.

Lecture 15: The Suez Crisis

• The Suez Crisis in 1956, where the Egyptian government nationalized the Suez Canal marked a turning point for Britain
• A failed invasion by Britain and France symbolized Britain's diminished power and influence.
• After World War II, the British Empire declined economically, militarily, and in global influence
• Reasons for decline included the loss of colonies, war debt, and the rise of the US and USSR as superpowers
• The prosperity of war revealed the social inequalities in England and thus led to Civil rights, gender equality, and labor reforms.

Lecture 16: Modern Life in an Old Country

• In the 1960s, major tensions in Britain were caused by youth and counterculture movements

• Also, immigration and decolonization led to racial tensions, political conflicts, social reforms, and the Vietnam War.

• Cultural dynamism in Britain was due to a blend of tradition (white) with new influences from immigration

• Also advances in music and culture knowns as the British Invasion.

Lectures 15 & 16 Readings

• "The British Library and Caribbean Social Forum Oral Histories" is a video of Jamaican immigrants who moved to England in the 1960s and 70s, showing racism and economic inequality.

• "James Bond, Dr. No", a british spy film, reflects the anxieties and attitudes of the British Empire's declining influence

• As the geopolitical power wanes james Bond represents British strength.

• "P. Halasz, Great Britain: You Can Walk Across it On The Grass" an outsiders perspective after WW2 reflects on British Traditions, highlighting that Britain is attempting to focus on issues of immigration to redefine social change

Lecture 17: Musical and Other Invasions

• Post-war successes included reducing poverty, improving healthcare, and expanding education

• Economic strains persisted, and social movements for equality, and the Cold War also emerged

• Thatcherism involves policies implemented by Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher

• Her policies emphasized free-market and minimal government intervention

• There was a shift to neoliberal, reduced state involvement, and had some issues with labor unions

Lecture 18: Nation or Not

• British includes: citizenship, immigration, national identity, politics, and social factors

• The United Kingdom includes: England, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, the Isle Of Man.

• Can include British Commwealth territories or Europe post-Brexit

• "Hesmondhalgh, British Popular Music" discusses British popular music from the 1960s (Beatles) and its cultural shifts

• Music became a means of expressing identity, fighting back against the government, and and the effect of globalization

• "Dirty Pretty Things" discusses immigration, identity, exploitation, and marginalization (immigrants) in Britain

• Challenges the idea of a united front and looks at wealth divisions