Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the sense receptors?
What is the primary function of the sense receptors?
What does the Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies explain?
What does the Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies explain?
What is meant by the term Absolute Threshold?
What is meant by the term Absolute Threshold?
In Signal Detection Theory, what does a 'False Alarm' indicate?
In Signal Detection Theory, what does a 'False Alarm' indicate?
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What is the Difference Threshold also known as?
What is the Difference Threshold also known as?
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What phenomenon does Synesthesia describe?
What phenomenon does Synesthesia describe?
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Which of the following best describes the Functional Code?
Which of the following best describes the Functional Code?
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What does the term 'Just Noticeable Difference' refer to?
What does the term 'Just Noticeable Difference' refer to?
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What is the primary function of the pupil in the eye?
What is the primary function of the pupil in the eye?
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What is a primary characteristic of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?
What is a primary characteristic of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?
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What phenomenon describes the decline in sensory responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus?
What phenomenon describes the decline in sensory responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus?
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Which brain waves are associated with light sleep in Stage 1?
Which brain waves are associated with light sleep in Stage 1?
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Which cells in the retina are specialized for low light conditions?
Which cells in the retina are specialized for low light conditions?
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What sleep stage is primarily associated with vivid dreams?
What sleep stage is primarily associated with vivid dreams?
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Which process explains why individuals may perceive color differently, such as seeing a negative afterimage?
Which process explains why individuals may perceive color differently, such as seeing a negative afterimage?
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What causes sleep paralysis?
What causes sleep paralysis?
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What is a major effect of entering a sensory deprivation tank with a negative mindset?
What is a major effect of entering a sensory deprivation tank with a negative mindset?
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Which hypothesis suggests that sleep helps the body restore energy levels?
Which hypothesis suggests that sleep helps the body restore energy levels?
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What is the role of feature-detector cells in the brain?
What is the role of feature-detector cells in the brain?
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What is a common symptom of sleep deprivation?
What is a common symptom of sleep deprivation?
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How does the brain typically fill in gaps in peripheral vision?
How does the brain typically fill in gaps in peripheral vision?
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What type of insomnia involves difficulty falling asleep?
What type of insomnia involves difficulty falling asleep?
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What is the role of ganglion cells in visual processing?
What is the role of ganglion cells in visual processing?
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What does Restless Leg Syndrome cause?
What does Restless Leg Syndrome cause?
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What type of color blindness is primarily associated with the absence of specific color cones?
What type of color blindness is primarily associated with the absence of specific color cones?
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What is a key sign of Sleep Apnea?
What is a key sign of Sleep Apnea?
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What visual phenomenon occurs when one fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their field of vision?
What visual phenomenon occurs when one fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their field of vision?
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Which stage of sleep is particularly important for the consolidation of autobiographical memories?
Which stage of sleep is particularly important for the consolidation of autobiographical memories?
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Which of the following color vision theories is based on the activity of three types of cones?
Which of the following color vision theories is based on the activity of three types of cones?
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What is the primary focus of Freud's concept of latent content in dreams?
What is the primary focus of Freud's concept of latent content in dreams?
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What aspect of visual experience does saturation relate to?
What aspect of visual experience does saturation relate to?
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How does the cognitive approach view the nature of dreams?
How does the cognitive approach view the nature of dreams?
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How are rainbows produced?
How are rainbows produced?
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What happens during the process of dark adaptation?
What happens during the process of dark adaptation?
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What is an effective strategy to improve sleep quality?
What is an effective strategy to improve sleep quality?
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What are the two main types of explicit memories?
What are the two main types of explicit memories?
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Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?
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What phenomenon occurs when someone is unable to retrieve a word but feels it is on the verge of being recalled?
What phenomenon occurs when someone is unable to retrieve a word but feels it is on the verge of being recalled?
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How is information typically organized in long-term memory?
How is information typically organized in long-term memory?
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Which of the following is a characteristic of episodic memory?
Which of the following is a characteristic of episodic memory?
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Which of the following terms describes the brain's preference for smooth, continuous lines over abrupt changes?
Which of the following terms describes the brain's preference for smooth, continuous lines over abrupt changes?
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What is the primary function of the dorsal stream in visual processing?
What is the primary function of the dorsal stream in visual processing?
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Which cue allows the perception of depth for objects that are farther than 50 feet away?
Which cue allows the perception of depth for objects that are farther than 50 feet away?
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Which visual cue involves an object blocking the view of another, leading to the perception that the blocked object is farther away?
Which visual cue involves an object blocking the view of another, leading to the perception that the blocked object is farther away?
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What phenomenon occurs when the eyes focus on a single object by contracting eye muscles?
What phenomenon occurs when the eyes focus on a single object by contracting eye muscles?
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Which type of perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as unchanged despite variations in size due to distance?
Which type of perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as unchanged despite variations in size due to distance?
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What is the term for the phenomenon where people find faces in unrelated stimuli?
What is the term for the phenomenon where people find faces in unrelated stimuli?
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What type of depth cue is used when an observer perceives motion from objects at different distances while moving?
What type of depth cue is used when an observer perceives motion from objects at different distances while moving?
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Which form of auditory experience relates to the complexity of a sound wave?
Which form of auditory experience relates to the complexity of a sound wave?
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Which of the following best describes brightness constancy?
Which of the following best describes brightness constancy?
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What type of cues are used for perceiving depth when objects are closer than 50 feet?
What type of cues are used for perceiving depth when objects are closer than 50 feet?
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What is the effect called when an object appears smaller because it is farther away, despite its actual size?
What is the effect called when an object appears smaller because it is farther away, despite its actual size?
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Which term describes the perception of a stable object despite changes in its appearance when observed from different angles?
Which term describes the perception of a stable object despite changes in its appearance when observed from different angles?
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What is the role of hair cells located in the cochlea?
What is the role of hair cells located in the cochlea?
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Which theory explains the role of the placement of hair cells along the basilar membrane in hearing?
Which theory explains the role of the placement of hair cells along the basilar membrane in hearing?
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What primarily triggers the dreams according to the Activation-Synthesis Theory?
What primarily triggers the dreams according to the Activation-Synthesis Theory?
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What key factor determines the experience of taste in humans?
What key factor determines the experience of taste in humans?
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Which is NOT a suggested purpose of hypnosis?
Which is NOT a suggested purpose of hypnosis?
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What does the Gate-Control Theory of pain suggest?
What does the Gate-Control Theory of pain suggest?
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What is a common feature of a Minimally Conscious State?
What is a common feature of a Minimally Conscious State?
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What phenomenon describes feeling pain in a body part that has been amputated?
What phenomenon describes feeling pain in a body part that has been amputated?
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What mental effect is primarily associated with stimulants?
What mental effect is primarily associated with stimulants?
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Which type of fibers register chronic, dull pain?
Which type of fibers register chronic, dull pain?
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Which of the following statements about the Cognitive Approach to dreaming is true?
Which of the following statements about the Cognitive Approach to dreaming is true?
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How does the concept of 'entrainment' relate to biological rhythms?
How does the concept of 'entrainment' relate to biological rhythms?
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What does the process of tolerance refer to in the context of drug use?
What does the process of tolerance refer to in the context of drug use?
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What effect does melatonin have in relation to circadian rhythms?
What effect does melatonin have in relation to circadian rhythms?
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Which disorder of consciousness is characterized by completely intact cognitive functioning while appearing unconscious?
Which disorder of consciousness is characterized by completely intact cognitive functioning while appearing unconscious?
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What are the small elevations on the tongue that contain taste buds called?
What are the small elevations on the tongue that contain taste buds called?
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What effect can hallucinogens have on perception?
What effect can hallucinogens have on perception?
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Which of the following statements is true about supertasters?
Which of the following statements is true about supertasters?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the brain's reward system?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the brain's reward system?
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What role do the olfactory centers in the brain play in relation to smell?
What role do the olfactory centers in the brain play in relation to smell?
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What is generally considered a sign of physical dependence on a drug?
What is generally considered a sign of physical dependence on a drug?
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What primarily determines the experience of equilibrium in the body?
What primarily determines the experience of equilibrium in the body?
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In the Sociocognitive Explanation of hypnosis, what primarily influences the hypnotized person's experience?
In the Sociocognitive Explanation of hypnosis, what primarily influences the hypnotized person's experience?
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What do fast fibers register?
What do fast fibers register?
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What type of memory interference is notably reduced during hypnosis?
What type of memory interference is notably reduced during hypnosis?
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Which of the following is NOT a basic taste identified in human gustation?
Which of the following is NOT a basic taste identified in human gustation?
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Which of the following substances is classified as a sedative or downer?
Which of the following substances is classified as a sedative or downer?
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What is a key characteristic of dreams that poses a challenge for the Activation-Synthesis Theory?
What is a key characteristic of dreams that poses a challenge for the Activation-Synthesis Theory?
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What is the primary role of narcotics in the body?
What is the primary role of narcotics in the body?
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What effect does alcohol have on the brain?
What effect does alcohol have on the brain?
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Which process occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly?
Which process occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly?
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What is the primary goal of counter conditioning?
What is the primary goal of counter conditioning?
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What is the main distinction between primary and secondary reinforcers?
What is the main distinction between primary and secondary reinforcers?
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Which of the following best describes the effect of THC?
Which of the following best describes the effect of THC?
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What is 'Fear Conditioning' characterized by?
What is 'Fear Conditioning' characterized by?
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What is a common effect of using marijuana?
What is a common effect of using marijuana?
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In classical conditioning, what does the term 'Conditioned Response' refer to?
In classical conditioning, what does the term 'Conditioned Response' refer to?
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What principle describes the phenomenon where a conditioned response reappears after a time of extinction?
What principle describes the phenomenon where a conditioned response reappears after a time of extinction?
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What does the 'Garcia Effect' demonstrate about classical conditioning?
What does the 'Garcia Effect' demonstrate about classical conditioning?
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Which type of behaviorism emphasizes observable actions and environmental influences?
Which type of behaviorism emphasizes observable actions and environmental influences?
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What is a biphasic effect related to alcohol consumption?
What is a biphasic effect related to alcohol consumption?
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Which type of reinforcers satisfy a biological need directly?
Which type of reinforcers satisfy a biological need directly?
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What phenomenon occurs when a response is elicited by similar stimuli in stimulus generalization?
What phenomenon occurs when a response is elicited by similar stimuli in stimulus generalization?
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What is negative reinforcement?
What is negative reinforcement?
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Which learning type aims to remove the possibility that a stimulus will occur?
Which learning type aims to remove the possibility that a stimulus will occur?
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What describes the process of reinforcing successive approximations of a specific response?
What describes the process of reinforcing successive approximations of a specific response?
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In operant conditioning, what occurs when the reinforcer maintaining a response is no longer available?
In operant conditioning, what occurs when the reinforcer maintaining a response is no longer available?
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What term refers to the ability to identify previously encountered information?
What term refers to the ability to identify previously encountered information?
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Which type of reinforcement is inherently connected to the activity being reinforced?
Which type of reinforcement is inherently connected to the activity being reinforced?
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Which of the following statements describes negative punishment?
Which of the following statements describes negative punishment?
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What is the primary function of a discriminative stimulus?
What is the primary function of a discriminative stimulus?
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Which model includes sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory?
Which model includes sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory?
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What is meant by the 'magic number' in short-term/working memory?
What is meant by the 'magic number' in short-term/working memory?
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What can often undermine intrinsic motivation when used excessively?
What can often undermine intrinsic motivation when used excessively?
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Which type of learning occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not expressed overtly?
Which type of learning occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not expressed overtly?
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What does escape learning specifically involve?
What does escape learning specifically involve?
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What is a likely effect of harsh or frequent punishment?
What is a likely effect of harsh or frequent punishment?
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What is state-dependent memory?
What is state-dependent memory?
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What primarily contributes to childhood amnesia?
What primarily contributes to childhood amnesia?
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What does confabulation imply regarding memories?
What does confabulation imply regarding memories?
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Which factor does NOT contribute to the vulnerability of eyewitness testimony?
Which factor does NOT contribute to the vulnerability of eyewitness testimony?
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What is the repression controversy related to?
What is the repression controversy related to?
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How does mood-dependent memory affect recall?
How does mood-dependent memory affect recall?
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What characterizes psychogenic amnesia?
What characterizes psychogenic amnesia?
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What is a significant issue with traumatic amnesia?
What is a significant issue with traumatic amnesia?
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What does item memory refer to?
What does item memory refer to?
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What does source misattribution refer to?
What does source misattribution refer to?
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What is likely the mechanism behind long-term memory formation based on synaptic changes?
What is likely the mechanism behind long-term memory formation based on synaptic changes?
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Which part of the brain is crucial for the formation and retrieval of long-term explicit memories?
Which part of the brain is crucial for the formation and retrieval of long-term explicit memories?
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What process refers to the timing required for changes associated with long-term potentiation to take effect?
What process refers to the timing required for changes associated with long-term potentiation to take effect?
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What does proactive interference hinder after initially learning information?
What does proactive interference hinder after initially learning information?
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Which type of rehearsal is more likely to result in the transfer of information to long-term memory?
Which type of rehearsal is more likely to result in the transfer of information to long-term memory?
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What role do adrenal hormones like epinephrine play in memory?
What role do adrenal hormones like epinephrine play in memory?
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Which principle states that memory retrieval is most effective when the encoding and retrieval contexts are the same?
Which principle states that memory retrieval is most effective when the encoding and retrieval contexts are the same?
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What is the term for the tendency of new information to erase old information in long-term memory?
What is the term for the tendency of new information to erase old information in long-term memory?
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Which of the following best describes the process of deep processing during encoding?
Which of the following best describes the process of deep processing during encoding?
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What effect does sleep have on memory consolidation?
What effect does sleep have on memory consolidation?
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Which area of the brain is primarily involved in emotionally charged memories?
Which area of the brain is primarily involved in emotionally charged memories?
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What type of memory is characterized as intense and vivid but may become less accurate over time?
What type of memory is characterized as intense and vivid but may become less accurate over time?
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Which condition may result in a person experiencing déjà vu?
Which condition may result in a person experiencing déjà vu?
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What effect does the review and repetition of material have on memory retention?
What effect does the review and repetition of material have on memory retention?
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Study Notes
Sensation and Perception
- Sensation: Detection of physical energy by sensory organs; begins at sense receptors. Perception: Brain's organization and interpretation of sensory input.
- Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies (Anatomical Code): Different sensory modalities due to different nerve pathways to brain regions. Stimuli follow specific pathways to be perceived.
- Synesthesia: A condition where sensation in one modality consistently evokes a sensation in another.
- Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus energy detected 50% of the time.
- Difference Threshold ("Just Noticeable Difference"): Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli; expressed as a Weber fraction.
- Signal Detection Theory: Detecting a signal involves both a sensory process and a decision process.
- Sensory Adaptation: Decline in sensory responsiveness to unchanging stimuli. Benefits include adapting to clothing; drawbacks include nose-blindness.
- Selective Attention: Focusing on aspects of the environment while ignoring others. Inattentional Blindness: Failure to perceive unattended visual stimuli.
Vision
- Hue (colour): Dimension of visual experience determined by wavelength.
- Saturation (colourfulness): Dimension related to light complexity (wavelength range).
- Brightness: Dimension related to light intensity (wave amplitude).
- Structure of the eye: Sclera (outer), Cornea (clear front layer), Pupil (light regulator), Iris (muscle adjusting pupil size), Lens (focuses light), Retina (neural tissue with receptors).
- Cones, Rods: Cones (centre, detail, colour, 5-7 million); Rods (peripheral, low light, movement, 80-100 million).
- Dark Adaptation: Rods and cones gain sensitivity in low light (cones 5-20 minutes, rods ~30 minutes).
- Feature-Detector Cells: Cells detecting specific visual aspects (lines, orientation).
- Prosopagnosia: Damage to facial recognition areas.
- Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz): Colour vision from three cone types (short, medium, long wavelengths).
- Opponent-Process Theory: Colour perception based on opposing pairs (red-green, yellow-blue, etc.). Negative Afterimages: Persistence of opposing colour after prolonged exposure.
- Gestalt Principles: Grouping sensory elements into meaningful units (proximity, similarity, continuity, closure). Optical Illusions: Misinterpretations of sensory cues. Figure-Ground: Distinguishing objects from background.
- Binocular Depth Cues: Two eyes, different perspectives for distance (convergence, retinal disparity).
- Monocular Depth Cues: One eye, cues for depth further than 50 feet (interposition, linear perspective, relative size, relative clarity, texture gradient, light and shadow, motion parallax).
- Visual Pathways: Dorsal ("where/how") and Ventral ("what").
- Perceptual Constancies: Stable perception of objects despite changing sensory input (size, shape, location, brightness).
- Perceptual Illusions: Misleading sensory cues. Pareidolia: Finding faces in irrelevant stimuli.
Hearing
- Loudness: Related to sound wave amplitude (dB).
- Pitch: Related to sound wave frequency (Hz).
- Timbre: Related to sound wave complexity.
- Cochlea, Basilar Membrane, Hair cells: Cochlea (snail-shaped organ), basilar membrane (membrane vibrating in ear), hair cells (neurons).
- Place Theory: Hair cell location related to sound frequency. Frequency Theory: Hair cell firing synchronises with sound wave. Volley Principle: Groups of hair cells work together for higher frequencies.
Taste and Smell
- Basic tastes: Salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami, oleogustus.
- Supertasters: Individuals with more taste buds (sensitivity to bitter tastes).
- Olfactory Epithelium: Cells with cilia (sensory receptors).
Pain
- Nociception: Detection of potentially harmful stimuli.
- Fast fibres, Slow fibres: Fast fibres (sharp pain); slow fibres (chronic pain).
- Gate-control theory: Theory about how pain signals reach the brain, but mechanisms are not definitively understood.
- Phantom pain: Feeling pain from absent body parts.
Body Awareness (Kinesthesis and Equilibrium)
- Kinesthesis: Awareness of body part positions and movements.
- Equilibrium: Awareness of body's orientation.
Consciousness
- Biological Rhythms: Fluctuations in biological systems with psychological significance.
- Circadian Rhythm: ~24-hour biological rhythm (often entrained by external cues).
- Entrainment: Synchronization of biological rhythms with external cues.
- Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): Seasonal depression, likely linked to lack of sunlight and vitamin D.
- Stages of Sleep: Awake (beta waves), Stage 1 (alpha waves), Stage 2 (theta waves, spindles, k-complex), Stage 3/4 (delta waves), REM (similar to awake brain activity).
- Sleep functions: Restore and repair, preserve and protect.
- Types of Insomnia (onset, maintenance, terminal). Restless Legs Syndrome. REM Behavior Disorder. Somnambulism (Sleepwalking). Sleep Apnea, Narcolepsy.
Drug Effects
- Stimulants: Speed up nervous system, increase dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine. Sedatives: Slow down nervous system, increase GABA activity. Hallucinogens: Distort perception, affect serotonin and glutamate. Narcotics: Reduce pain, euphoria, increased endorphins. Alcohol: Euphoria, relaxation (various effects on neurotransmitters). Marijuana: Relaxation, distortion (mimics anandamide).
- Long-term drug effects: Tolerance, Physical dependence, Psychological dependence, Top-down influences.
- Effects of Drug Use on Body/Brain: Cognitive deterioration, physical deterioration.
Learning
- Classical Conditioning: Association between two stimuli to produce a learned response.
- Operant Conditioning: Behaviour changes based on consequences (reinforcement and punishment, shaping, chaining) ; includes secondary reinforcers.
- Cognitive Theories of Learning: Observational learning, social factors.
- Latent Learning: Learning not immediately expressed (Tolman's rat maze study).
Memory
- Information-Processing Models: Input, output, accessing, retrieval. Three-box model (sensory register, short-term, long-term memory).
- Sensory Memory: Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory). Short-term/Working memory: Limited capacity (7 +/- 2), chunking.
- Long-term Memory: Explicit (declarative) - Semantic (facts) and Episodic (personal experiences); Implicit (non-declarative) - Procedural (skills) and Conditioning (associative).
- Serial Position Effect: Better recall of first and last items in a list.
- Encoding Strategies: Maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, deep processing, retrieval practice.
- Reasons for forgetting: Decay, replacement, interference, cue dependent, encoding specificity.
- Types of amnesia.
- Flashbulb memories: Vivid, detailed recollections, but potentially less accurate.
Hypnosis
- Dissociation theory of hypnosis: Split in consciousness (hypnotized vs. hidden observer). Sociocognitive explanation: Role-playing and social/cognitive factors.
Disorders of Consciousness
- Spectrum of wakefulness/awareness: Brain death (no recovery potential), Coma (complete LOC), Persistent Vegetative State (PVS), Minimally Conscious State, Locked-In Syndrome.
Psychology of Dream Theories
- Manifest vs. latent content, problems reflected in dreams, a problem-focused approach, cognitive approach, and activation-synthesis theory.
Studying That Suits You
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Description
Test your knowledge on sensation and perception, delving into concepts such as the Absolute Threshold, Signal Detection Theory, and Synesthesia. This quiz will challenge your understanding of how sensory information is processed and interpreted by the brain.
