Sensation and Perception Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the sense receptors?

  • To eliminate sensory overload
  • To interpret sensory information in the brain
  • To provide a pathway for sensory signals
  • To detect physical energy from objects (correct)

What does the Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies explain?

  • All sensory pathways are identical
  • Different senses correspond to distinct areas in the brain (correct)
  • Sensations can be crossed over to enhance perception
  • All senses are processed similarly in the brain

What is meant by the term Absolute Threshold?

  • The minimum amount of energy required for reliable detection of a stimulus (correct)
  • The maximum quantity of stimulus needed to evoke a sensation
  • The threshold at which perception begins
  • The average detection rate of sensory stimuli

In Signal Detection Theory, what does a 'False Alarm' indicate?

<p>A stimulus is falsely detected when it is not present (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Difference Threshold also known as?

<p>Weber Fraction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon does Synesthesia describe?

<p>A condition where one sensory experience triggers another (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Functional Code?

<p>Information about the intensity and pattern of neuron firing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Just Noticeable Difference' refer to?

<p>The smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the pupil in the eye?

<p>Regulates the light that enters the eye (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary characteristic of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)?

<p>Depression during specific seasons (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes the decline in sensory responsiveness to an unchanging stimulus?

<p>Sensory Adaptation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which brain waves are associated with light sleep in Stage 1?

<p>Alpha waves (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cells in the retina are specialized for low light conditions?

<p>Rods (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What sleep stage is primarily associated with vivid dreams?

<p>REM Sleep (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process explains why individuals may perceive color differently, such as seeing a negative afterimage?

<p>Opponent Process Theory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes sleep paralysis?

<p>Waking during REM sleep (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major effect of entering a sensory deprivation tank with a negative mindset?

<p>Hallucinations or hearing things (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis suggests that sleep helps the body restore energy levels?

<p>Restore and Repair Hypothesis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of feature-detector cells in the brain?

<p>Detecting specific aspects of visual stimuli (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom of sleep deprivation?

<p>Emotional deficits (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the brain typically fill in gaps in peripheral vision?

<p>By using prior knowledge and context (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of insomnia involves difficulty falling asleep?

<p>Onset Insomnia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ganglion cells in visual processing?

<p>Transmits visual signals to the brain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Restless Leg Syndrome cause?

<p>Persistent discomfort and urge to move the legs (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of color blindness is primarily associated with the absence of specific color cones?

<p>Dichromat Vision (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key sign of Sleep Apnea?

<p>Temporary inability to breathe during sleep (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What visual phenomenon occurs when one fails to notice an unexpected stimulus in their field of vision?

<p>Inattentional Blindness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of sleep is particularly important for the consolidation of autobiographical memories?

<p>Stage 3/4 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following color vision theories is based on the activity of three types of cones?

<p>Young-Helmholtz Theory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Freud's concept of latent content in dreams?

<p>Manifestations of desires and fears (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of visual experience does saturation relate to?

<p>Complexity of light wavelengths (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the cognitive approach view the nature of dreams?

<p>They include thoughts related to current waking concerns. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are rainbows produced?

<p>By white light being split by water particles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of dark adaptation?

<p>Rods require approximately 30 minutes to adapt (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an effective strategy to improve sleep quality?

<p>Maintaining a consistent sleep schedule (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the two main types of explicit memories?

<p>Semantic and Episodic (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of implicit memory?

<p>Knowing how to ride a bike (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when someone is unable to retrieve a word but feels it is on the verge of being recalled?

<p>TOT (tip of the tongue) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is information typically organized in long-term memory?

<p>By both semantic categories and phonetics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of episodic memory?

<p>It is more likely to be forgotten as we age. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following terms describes the brain's preference for smooth, continuous lines over abrupt changes?

<p>Continuity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the dorsal stream in visual processing?

<p>Depth and motion perception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cue allows the perception of depth for objects that are farther than 50 feet away?

<p>Monocular cues (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which visual cue involves an object blocking the view of another, leading to the perception that the blocked object is farther away?

<p>Interposition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when the eyes focus on a single object by contracting eye muscles?

<p>Convergence (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as unchanged despite variations in size due to distance?

<p>Size constancy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the phenomenon where people find faces in unrelated stimuli?

<p>Pareidolia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of depth cue is used when an observer perceives motion from objects at different distances while moving?

<p>Motion parallax (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which form of auditory experience relates to the complexity of a sound wave?

<p>Timbre (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes brightness constancy?

<p>Objects appear brighter at night due to light reflection (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of cues are used for perceiving depth when objects are closer than 50 feet?

<p>Binocular depth cues (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect called when an object appears smaller because it is farther away, despite its actual size?

<p>Relative size (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the perception of a stable object despite changes in its appearance when observed from different angles?

<p>Shape constancy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of hair cells located in the cochlea?

<p>They serve as receptors that determine neuron activation based on frequencies. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which theory explains the role of the placement of hair cells along the basilar membrane in hearing?

<p>Place Theory (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily triggers the dreams according to the Activation-Synthesis Theory?

<p>The cortex trying to synthesize neural signals (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key factor determines the experience of taste in humans?

<p>Cultural preferences and exposure to foods (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is NOT a suggested purpose of hypnosis?

<p>Complete loss of consciousness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Gate-Control Theory of pain suggest?

<p>Pain impulses can be blocked by neurological gates in the spinal cord. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common feature of a Minimally Conscious State?

<p>Inconsistent signs of consciousness (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon describes feeling pain in a body part that has been amputated?

<p>Phantom Pain (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mental effect is primarily associated with stimulants?

<p>Enhanced wakefulness and alertness (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fibers register chronic, dull pain?

<p>Slow Fibers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the Cognitive Approach to dreaming is true?

<p>It remains untested regarding certain claims. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'entrainment' relate to biological rhythms?

<p>It indicates synchronization with external cues. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the process of tolerance refer to in the context of drug use?

<p>The need for increased dosage to achieve the same effect. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does melatonin have in relation to circadian rhythms?

<p>It accumulates with darkness and promotes sleep. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder of consciousness is characterized by completely intact cognitive functioning while appearing unconscious?

<p>Locked-In Syndrome (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the small elevations on the tongue that contain taste buds called?

<p>Papillae (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect can hallucinogens have on perception?

<p>Produce perceptual distortions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true about supertasters?

<p>They have a higher number of taste buds. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with the brain's reward system?

<p>Dopamine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do the olfactory centers in the brain play in relation to smell?

<p>They are linked to areas that process memories and emotions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is generally considered a sign of physical dependence on a drug?

<p>Withdrawal symptoms upon cessation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily determines the experience of equilibrium in the body?

<p>Orientation of body as a whole (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the Sociocognitive Explanation of hypnosis, what primarily influences the hypnotized person's experience?

<p>Social suggestions and cognitive processes (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do fast fibers register?

<p>Sharp immediate pain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory interference is notably reduced during hypnosis?

<p>Stroop effect conflicts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a basic taste identified in human gustation?

<p>Citrus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following substances is classified as a sedative or downer?

<p>Xanax (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of dreams that poses a challenge for the Activation-Synthesis Theory?

<p>A coherent, story-like narrative (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of narcotics in the body?

<p>They reduce pain and induce feelings of euphoria. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does alcohol have on the brain?

<p>It increases GABA activity initially, then stimulates endorphin and dopamine receptors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process occurs when a conditioned stimulus is presented without the unconditioned stimulus repeatedly?

<p>Extinction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of counter conditioning?

<p>To associate a conditioned stimulus with an incompatible response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main distinction between primary and secondary reinforcers?

<p>Secondary reinforcers derive their power through association with primary reinforcers. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the effect of THC?

<p>It binds to cannabinoid receptors, mimicking brain chemicals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is 'Fear Conditioning' characterized by?

<p>A previously neutral stimulus predicting an aversive stimulus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common effect of using marijuana?

<p>Intense sensory distortions and paranoia. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what does the term 'Conditioned Response' refer to?

<p>A learned response to a conditioned stimulus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What principle describes the phenomenon where a conditioned response reappears after a time of extinction?

<p>Spontaneous Recovery (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'Garcia Effect' demonstrate about classical conditioning?

<p>Biological predisposition can make certain associations easier. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of behaviorism emphasizes observable actions and environmental influences?

<p>Classical behaviorism (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a biphasic effect related to alcohol consumption?

<p>Initial stimulation followed by sedation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcers satisfy a biological need directly?

<p>Primary reinforcers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What phenomenon occurs when a response is elicited by similar stimuli in stimulus generalization?

<p>The learned response generalizes to similar stimuli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is negative reinforcement?

<p>Something unpleasant is removed following a response (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which learning type aims to remove the possibility that a stimulus will occur?

<p>Avoidance Learning (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the process of reinforcing successive approximations of a specific response?

<p>Shaping (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In operant conditioning, what occurs when the reinforcer maintaining a response is no longer available?

<p>Extinction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the ability to identify previously encountered information?

<p>Recognition (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement is inherently connected to the activity being reinforced?

<p>Intrinsic Reinforcers (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements describes negative punishment?

<p>Removing a pleasant stimulus following a response (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a discriminative stimulus?

<p>To signal when a response will be reinforced (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which model includes sensory memory, working memory, and long-term memory?

<p>Three-Box Model (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the 'magic number' in short-term/working memory?

<p>7 +/- 2 items (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can often undermine intrinsic motivation when used excessively?

<p>Extrinsic Reinforcers (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning occurs without immediate reinforcement and is not expressed overtly?

<p>Latent Learning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does escape learning specifically involve?

<p>Removing an immediate unpleasant stimulus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely effect of harsh or frequent punishment?

<p>It results in anxiety and fear responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is state-dependent memory?

<p>Memory retrieval is more effective when the internal state during retrieval matches the one during encoding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily contributes to childhood amnesia?

<p>The immaturity of certain brain structures makes encoding difficult. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does confabulation imply regarding memories?

<p>Imagined events can be confused with actual events. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT contribute to the vulnerability of eyewitness testimony?

<p>Witnesses recalling events with emotional intensity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the repression controversy related to?

<p>The defense mechanism pushing unwelcome memories into the unconscious. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does mood-dependent memory affect recall?

<p>It helps people to remember events if current mood matches the encoding mood. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes psychogenic amnesia?

<p>It involves sudden loss of memory after a precipitating event. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant issue with traumatic amnesia?

<p>It may not exist in the way it has been historically presented. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does item memory refer to?

<p>The recollection of specific details about an event. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does source misattribution refer to?

<p>Inability to differentiate actual memories from learned information about the event. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is likely the mechanism behind long-term memory formation based on synaptic changes?

<p>Long-term potentiation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is crucial for the formation and retrieval of long-term explicit memories?

<p>Hippocampus (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process refers to the timing required for changes associated with long-term potentiation to take effect?

<p>Consolidation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does proactive interference hinder after initially learning information?

<p>Learning new information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal is more likely to result in the transfer of information to long-term memory?

<p>Elaborative rehearsal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do adrenal hormones like epinephrine play in memory?

<p>They improve memory by altering glucose levels. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which principle states that memory retrieval is most effective when the encoding and retrieval contexts are the same?

<p>Encoding specificity principle (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the tendency of new information to erase old information in long-term memory?

<p>Memory replacement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the process of deep processing during encoding?

<p>Analyzing the meaning of information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does sleep have on memory consolidation?

<p>It helps stabilize and solidify memories. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is primarily involved in emotionally charged memories?

<p>Amygdala (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory is characterized as intense and vivid but may become less accurate over time?

<p>Flashbulb memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which condition may result in a person experiencing déjà vu?

<p>Insufficient cues for recall (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does the review and repetition of material have on memory retention?

<p>It increases the chances of long-term retention. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Sensation

The detection of physical energy emitted or reflected by objects, starting at sense receptors.

Perception

The brain's organization and interpretation of sensory information.

Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies

Different sensory modalities exist because signals stimulate different nerve pathways to different brain areas.

Synesthesia

One sensation consistently evokes another in a different modality.

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Absolute Threshold

Minimum stimulus energy needed to reliably detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

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Difference Threshold

Smallest difference between stimuli that can be reliably detected.

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Signal Detection Theory

Describes detecting a signal as a combination of sensory process and decision process.

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Weber's fraction

Ratio representing the difference threshold divided by the stimulus intensity.

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Sensory Adaptation

A decline in sensory responsiveness when a stimulus is unchanging or repetitive, usually beneficial.

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Sensory Stimulation

The process of receiving sensory input from the environment, which can be good or bad.

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Sensory Deprivation Tank

A tank that isolates you from sensory input, often used for relaxation and stress relief.

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Selective Attention

Focusing on certain aspects of the environment and ignoring others.

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Inattentional Blindness

Failing to notice something obvious when attention is focused elsewhere.

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Hue

The dimension of color, determined by the wavelength of light.

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Saturation

The vividness or intensity of a color.

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Brightness

The intensity of light reflected or emitted.

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Retina

The light-sensitive tissue lining the back of the eyeball.

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Cones

Photoreceptor cells specialized for color vision and detail.

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Rods

Photoreceptor cells specialized for low-light vision and peripheral vision.

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Dark Adaptation

The process of the rods and cones becoming more sensitive to low light levels.

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Color Blindness

Inability to distinguish between certain colors.

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Trichromatic Theory

The theory that color vision results from three types of cones.

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Opponent-Process Theory

The theory that color vision results from opposing pairs of colors.

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Proximity

The perceptual grouping rule where we tend to perceive objects close together as belonging to the same group.

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Similarity

The perceptual grouping rule where we tend to perceive objects that are similar in appearance (color, shape, size) as belonging to the same group.

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Continuity

The perceptual rule that lines and objects tend to be perceived as continuous rather than abrupt.

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Closure

The perceptual rule where we fill in gaps to perceive complete objects when incomplete objects are present.

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Dorsal Stream

The visual pathway that helps you understand "where" and "how" to interact with objects, focusing on motion and depth.

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Ventral Stream

The visual pathway that helps you identify objects, like recognizing faces and colors.

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Binocular Depth Cues

Distance cues based on the slightly different views from both eyes. Useful for things up to 50 feet away.

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Convergence

The inward turning of the eyes to focus on a nearby object, providing a depth cue.

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Retinal Disparity

The difference in the images received by each eye, creating depth perception.

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Stereopsis

The perception of depth from binocular disparity.

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Interposition

When one object blocks part of another, making the blocked object appear farther away.

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Motion Parallax

Objects closer to you seem to move faster sideways, while objects farther away appear to move slower. (Motion effect)

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Pareidolia

Seeing faces or meaningful patterns in random stimuli, like clouds or textures.

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Size Constancy

Our perception of size remains relatively constant even when the visual image changes, compensating for distance.

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Cochlea

A snail-shaped, fluid-filled organ in the inner ear containing the organ of Corti. It houses hearing receptors.

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Basilar Membrane

A membrane in the cochlea. Its movement triggers hearing nerve signals.

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Hair Cells

Specialized receptors in the ear. Their movement sends signals to the brain via the nervous system.

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Cochlear Implant

An artificial device that helps people with hearing loss by stimulating the auditory nerve.

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Frequency Theory

Ear hair cells fire in sync with a sound wave, telling the brain the sound's frequency.

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Place Theory

The theory that different parts of the cochlea detect different frequencies of sound.

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Taste Buds

Sensory organs on the tongue that detect taste.

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Papillae

Elevations on the tongue containing taste buds.

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Supertasters

People with enhanced taste sensitivity due to a high number of taste buds.

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Olfactory Epithelium

Tissue in the nose containing smell receptors.

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Nociceptors

Sensory receptors that detect pain.

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Fast Fibers

These nerve fibers quickly transmit sharp, immediate pain signals.

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Slow Fibers

These nerve fibers transmit chronic, dull pain signals slowly.

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Circadian Rhythm

A biological rhythm about 24 hours long. Often influences sleep-wake cycles.

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Entrainment

The process where biological rhythms synchronize with external cues.

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Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

A type of depression that occurs during specific seasons, usually winter, often linked to lack of sunlight and vitamin D.

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Sleep Stages

Distinct phases of sleep characterized by different brainwave patterns and physiological changes.

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Beta Waves

Brainwaves associated with wakefulness and alertness.

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Alpha Waves

Brainwaves present during relaxed wakefulness and light sleep.

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Working Memory

A mental workspace that temporarily holds information for active use, allowing us to control attention, resist distractions, and manipulate information.

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Theta Waves

Brainwaves characteristic of stage 2 sleep, associated with deeper relaxation and early sleep stages.

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Delta Waves

Slowest and highest amplitude brainwaves, prominent during deep sleep (stages 3 & 4).

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Long-Term Memory

A vast storage system that holds information for extended periods, potentially indefinitely, and is organized based on categories, sound, and appearance.

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Semantic Memory

Part of Explicit Memory that stores factual knowledge about the world, like definitions, rules, and concepts.

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REM Sleep

Rapid eye movement sleep, characterized by active brain activity, vivid dreams, and muscle paralysis.

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Episodic Memory

Part of Explicit Memory that holds personal experiences with a sense of time and place, recalled from a first-person perspective.

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Sleep Paralysis

A phenomenon where you wake up during REM sleep, unable to move, and may experience hallucinations.

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Procedural Memory

Part of Implicit Memory that stores learned skills and motor patterns, like how to walk, play an instrument, or ride a bike.

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Restore and Repair Hypothesis

Sleep's primary purpose is to restore energy and repair wear and tear from daily activities.

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Preserve and Protect Hypothesis

Sleep serves to conserve energy and protect the organism from potential dangers.

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Sleep Deprivation

A state of insufficient sleep, leading to various cognitive, emotional, and physical impairments.

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Onset Insomnia

Difficulty falling asleep at bedtime.

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Maintenance Insomnia

Difficulty staying asleep throughout the night, waking up frequently.

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Terminal Insomnia

Waking up too early in the morning and being unable to fall back asleep.

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REM Behaviour Disorder

Acting out dreams due to a failure to inhibit muscle activity during REM sleep.

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Narcotics Effect

Narcotics reduce pain and induce euphoria by stimulating endorphin receptors. They have a high risk of dependence and tolerance develops quickly.

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Alcohol Effect

Alcohol causes euphoria, relaxation, and lowered inhibitions. It increases GABA activity, stimulates endorphin and dopamine receptors, and has a biphasic effect. Tolerance develops gradually, and there's a moderate to high risk of dependence.

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Marijuana Effect

Marijuana causes euphoria, relaxation, distorted sensory experiences, and paranoia. THC mimics anandamide, binding to cannabinoid receptors.

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Marijuana Brain Effects

Marijuana impairs memory, executive functioning, and motor coordination. It alters brain activity, leading to worse memory, attention, and decision-making compared to controls.

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Think-Drink Effect

Expectations can be more powerful than the drug itself.

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Classical Conditioning

A process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus that already elicits a response, acquiring the ability to elicit a similar or related response.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally elicits a reflexive response without learning.

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

A reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

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Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that initially does not elicit a specific response.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response due to pairing with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus.

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Extinction

The conditioned response weakens and disappears when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a conditioned response after a period of extinction.

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High-order Conditioning

A neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an already-established conditioned stimulus.

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Stimulus Generalization

Responding to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

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Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams arise from the brain trying to interpret random neural activity during sleep.

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Problem-Solving Approach

Dreams reflect and potentially help solve problems we encounter while awake.

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Cognitive Approach

Dreams reflect ongoing thoughts and mental processes, similar to waking cognition.

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Hypnosis

A procedure where a practitioner suggests changes in a person's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

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Dissociation Theory of Hypnosis

Hypnosis involves a split in consciousness, with a hypnotized part and a hidden observer.

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Sociocognitive Explanation of Hypnosis

Hypnosis is a product of social and cognitive influences, like expectations and role-playing.

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Brain Death

Complete and irreversible cessation of all brain function, including the brainstem.

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Persistent Vegetative State (PVS)

Minimal to no consciousness, with open eyes but no awareness or purposeful movement.

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Minimally Conscious State

Partial consciousness, with inconsistent signs of awareness and behaviors beyond reflexes.

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Locked-In Syndrome

Complete paralysis except for eye movements, with intact cognitive and emotional processing.

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Tolerance

Need for a higher dose of a drug to achieve the desired effect.

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Physical Dependence

Physiological need for a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms.

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Psychological Dependence

Mental need for a drug to cope with negative emotions or situations.

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Stimulants

Drugs that speed up the nervous system, increasing alertness and energy.

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Negative Reinforcement

A behavior is strengthened by removing something unpleasant after it occurs.

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Positive Punishment

A behavior is weakened by adding something unpleasant after it occurs.

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Negative Punishment

A behavior is weakened by removing something pleasant after it occurs.

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Avoidance Learning

A type of negative reinforcement where a behavior prevents a negative stimulus from happening.

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Escape Learning

A type of negative reinforcement where a behavior removes a negative stimulus that's already present.

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Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

The weakening of a learned behavior when the reinforcement is withheld.

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Stimulus Discrimination

Learning to respond differently to stimuli that signal different consequences.

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Discriminative Stimulus

A signal that indicates a specific behavior will lead to a certain consequence.

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Shaping

Gradually reinforcing closer and closer approximations of a desired behavior.

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Chaining

Linking together multiple learned behaviors into a complex sequence.

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Reasons Punishment Can Fail

Harsh punishment can lead to negative emotions, temporary effects, difficulty in timely application, limited information, and potentially reinforcing attention.

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When Punishment Must be Applied

Punishment should be non-physical, consistent, informative, and followed by positive reinforcement.

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Extrinsic Reinforcers

Rewards that are external to the activity being reinforced, such as money or praise.

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Intrinsic Reinforcers

Rewards that are internal to the activity being reinforced, such as satisfaction or enjoyment.

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State-Dependent Memory

Remembering is better when your internal state at retrieval matches your state during learning.

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Mood-Dependent Memory

You recall information better when your mood at retrieval matches your mood during learning.

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Childhood Amnesia

Most adults can't recall events from their lives before age 2.

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Reasons for Childhood Amnesia

Brain immaturity, undeveloped cognitive skills, and lack of social understanding contribute to childhood amnesia.

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Repression Controversy

Repression is the 'pushing' of unpleasant memories into the unconscious.

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Serial Position Effect

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

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Psychogenic Amnesia

Memory loss caused by psychological factors like stress or trauma.

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Traumatic Amnesia

Forgetting specific traumatic events for extended periods.

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Proactive Interference

When prior learning hinders the recall of new information.

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Retroactive Interference

When new learning hinders the recall of old information.

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Reconstructive Memory

Human memory is not like a video recorder; we actively reconstruct experiences, adding or changing details.

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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

A long-lasting increase in the strength of synaptic connections, thought to be a biological mechanism for long-term memory.

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Source Misattribution

Confusing the origin of a memory, like remembering someone else told you a joke.

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Confabulation

Mixing imagined events with real ones.

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Consolidation

The process of strengthening new memories over time, making them more resistant to forgetting.

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Amygdala

A brain structure that plays a crucial role in the formation, consolidation, and retrieval of emotionally arousing memories.

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Hippocampus

A brain structure critical for the formation and retrieval of long-term explicit memories, including recalling past events and the sense of time.

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Flashbulb Memories

Vivid, detailed memories of emotionally significant events.

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Memory Palace

A mnemonic technique that uses a familiar location to store and retrieve information.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

A memory technique that involves associating new information with existing knowledge or experiences.

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Deep Processing

Encoding information by focusing on its meaning and significance.

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Retrieval Practice

The act of actively retrieving information from memory, which strengthens the memory.

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Decay Theory

The idea that memories fade over time if not accessed.

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Replacement Theory

The idea that new information can overwrite old information in memory.

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Cue-Dependent Forgetting

The inability to retrieve information due to a lack of appropriate cues.

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Study Notes

Sensation and Perception

  • Sensation: Detection of physical energy by sensory organs; begins at sense receptors. Perception: Brain's organization and interpretation of sensory input.
  • Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies (Anatomical Code): Different sensory modalities due to different nerve pathways to brain regions. Stimuli follow specific pathways to be perceived.
  • Synesthesia: A condition where sensation in one modality consistently evokes a sensation in another.
  • Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus energy detected 50% of the time.
  • Difference Threshold ("Just Noticeable Difference"): Smallest detectable difference between two stimuli; expressed as a Weber fraction.
  • Signal Detection Theory: Detecting a signal involves both a sensory process and a decision process.
  • Sensory Adaptation: Decline in sensory responsiveness to unchanging stimuli. Benefits include adapting to clothing; drawbacks include nose-blindness.
  • Selective Attention: Focusing on aspects of the environment while ignoring others. Inattentional Blindness: Failure to perceive unattended visual stimuli.

Vision

  • Hue (colour): Dimension of visual experience determined by wavelength.
  • Saturation (colourfulness): Dimension related to light complexity (wavelength range).
  • Brightness: Dimension related to light intensity (wave amplitude).
  • Structure of the eye: Sclera (outer), Cornea (clear front layer), Pupil (light regulator), Iris (muscle adjusting pupil size), Lens (focuses light), Retina (neural tissue with receptors).
  • Cones, Rods: Cones (centre, detail, colour, 5-7 million); Rods (peripheral, low light, movement, 80-100 million).
  • Dark Adaptation: Rods and cones gain sensitivity in low light (cones 5-20 minutes, rods ~30 minutes).
  • Feature-Detector Cells: Cells detecting specific visual aspects (lines, orientation).
  • Prosopagnosia: Damage to facial recognition areas.
  • Trichromatic Theory (Young-Helmholtz): Colour vision from three cone types (short, medium, long wavelengths).
  • Opponent-Process Theory: Colour perception based on opposing pairs (red-green, yellow-blue, etc.). Negative Afterimages: Persistence of opposing colour after prolonged exposure.
  • Gestalt Principles: Grouping sensory elements into meaningful units (proximity, similarity, continuity, closure). Optical Illusions: Misinterpretations of sensory cues. Figure-Ground: Distinguishing objects from background.
  • Binocular Depth Cues: Two eyes, different perspectives for distance (convergence, retinal disparity).
  • Monocular Depth Cues: One eye, cues for depth further than 50 feet (interposition, linear perspective, relative size, relative clarity, texture gradient, light and shadow, motion parallax).
  • Visual Pathways: Dorsal ("where/how") and Ventral ("what").
  • Perceptual Constancies: Stable perception of objects despite changing sensory input (size, shape, location, brightness).
  • Perceptual Illusions: Misleading sensory cues. Pareidolia: Finding faces in irrelevant stimuli.

Hearing

  • Loudness: Related to sound wave amplitude (dB).
  • Pitch: Related to sound wave frequency (Hz).
  • Timbre: Related to sound wave complexity.
  • Cochlea, Basilar Membrane, Hair cells: Cochlea (snail-shaped organ), basilar membrane (membrane vibrating in ear), hair cells (neurons).
  • Place Theory: Hair cell location related to sound frequency. Frequency Theory: Hair cell firing synchronises with sound wave. Volley Principle: Groups of hair cells work together for higher frequencies.

Taste and Smell

  • Basic tastes: Salty, sour, bitter, sweet, umami, oleogustus.
  • Supertasters: Individuals with more taste buds (sensitivity to bitter tastes).
  • Olfactory Epithelium: Cells with cilia (sensory receptors).

Pain

  • Nociception: Detection of potentially harmful stimuli.
  • Fast fibres, Slow fibres: Fast fibres (sharp pain); slow fibres (chronic pain).
  • Gate-control theory: Theory about how pain signals reach the brain, but mechanisms are not definitively understood.
  • Phantom pain: Feeling pain from absent body parts.

Body Awareness (Kinesthesis and Equilibrium)

  • Kinesthesis: Awareness of body part positions and movements.
  • Equilibrium: Awareness of body's orientation.

Consciousness

  • Biological Rhythms: Fluctuations in biological systems with psychological significance.
  • Circadian Rhythm: ~24-hour biological rhythm (often entrained by external cues).
  • Entrainment: Synchronization of biological rhythms with external cues.
  • Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD): Seasonal depression, likely linked to lack of sunlight and vitamin D.
  • Stages of Sleep: Awake (beta waves), Stage 1 (alpha waves), Stage 2 (theta waves, spindles, k-complex), Stage 3/4 (delta waves), REM (similar to awake brain activity).
  • Sleep functions: Restore and repair, preserve and protect.
  • Types of Insomnia (onset, maintenance, terminal). Restless Legs Syndrome. REM Behavior Disorder. Somnambulism (Sleepwalking). Sleep Apnea, Narcolepsy.

Drug Effects

  • Stimulants: Speed up nervous system, increase dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine. Sedatives: Slow down nervous system, increase GABA activity. Hallucinogens: Distort perception, affect serotonin and glutamate. Narcotics: Reduce pain, euphoria, increased endorphins. Alcohol: Euphoria, relaxation (various effects on neurotransmitters). Marijuana: Relaxation, distortion (mimics anandamide).
  • Long-term drug effects: Tolerance, Physical dependence, Psychological dependence, Top-down influences.
  • Effects of Drug Use on Body/Brain: Cognitive deterioration, physical deterioration.

Learning

  • Classical Conditioning: Association between two stimuli to produce a learned response.
  • Operant Conditioning: Behaviour changes based on consequences (reinforcement and punishment, shaping, chaining) ; includes secondary reinforcers.
  • Cognitive Theories of Learning: Observational learning, social factors.
  • Latent Learning: Learning not immediately expressed (Tolman's rat maze study).

Memory

  • Information-Processing Models: Input, output, accessing, retrieval. Three-box model (sensory register, short-term, long-term memory).
  • Sensory Memory: Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory). Short-term/Working memory: Limited capacity (7 +/- 2), chunking.
  • Long-term Memory: Explicit (declarative) - Semantic (facts) and Episodic (personal experiences); Implicit (non-declarative) - Procedural (skills) and Conditioning (associative).
  • Serial Position Effect: Better recall of first and last items in a list.
  • Encoding Strategies: Maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, deep processing, retrieval practice.
  • Reasons for forgetting: Decay, replacement, interference, cue dependent, encoding specificity.
  • Types of amnesia.
  • Flashbulb memories: Vivid, detailed recollections, but potentially less accurate.

Hypnosis

  • Dissociation theory of hypnosis: Split in consciousness (hypnotized vs. hidden observer). Sociocognitive explanation: Role-playing and social/cognitive factors.

Disorders of Consciousness

  • Spectrum of wakefulness/awareness: Brain death (no recovery potential), Coma (complete LOC), Persistent Vegetative State (PVS), Minimally Conscious State, Locked-In Syndrome.

Psychology of Dream Theories

  • Manifest vs. latent content, problems reflected in dreams, a problem-focused approach, cognitive approach, and activation-synthesis theory.

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Description

Test your knowledge on sensation and perception, delving into concepts such as the Absolute Threshold, Signal Detection Theory, and Synesthesia. This quiz will challenge your understanding of how sensory information is processed and interpreted by the brain.

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