Psychology Chapter on Sensation and Perception

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Questions and Answers

Which best defines sensation?

The process of interpreting stimuli.

The physical process involving light and sound waves. (correct)

The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

The conversion of stimuli into neural impulses.

What is transduction in the context of sensory processing?

The sensation of pain triggered by nociceptors.

The minimum amount of sensation required to sense a stimulus.

The recognition of different colors by the cones.

The conversion of environmental stimuli into neural impulses. (correct)

What is the role of the pupil and iris in the eye?

To regulate the amount of light entering the eye. (correct)

To perceive color.

To convert light into neural impulses.

To regulate distance.

What does Weber's Law explain?

The relationship between stimulus intensity and the ability to perceive differences. Signup and view all the answers

What is an absolute threshold?

The minimum stimulation required to detect a single sensation. Signup and view all the answers

Which structures are involved in distance regulation in the eye?

Lens. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes dark adaptation?

Sensitivity of the rods increases in darkness. Signup and view all the answers

What does Gestalt theory emphasize regarding perception?

The human mind tends to perceive whole images rather than individual parts. Signup and view all the answers

What best describes the function of slow pain nerve fibers?

They are responsible for dull and achy pain. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement defines a conditioned stimulus?

A stimulus that elicits a learned response after conditioning. Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what is extinction?

The fading of a learned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes negative reinforcement from punishment?

Negative reinforcement involves removing something undesirable to increase behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a variable ratio reinforcement schedule?

It provides reinforcement after a variable number of responses that is unpredictable. Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct sequence of the memory process?

Encoding -> Storage -> Retrieval Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes positive punishment?

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior frequency. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by generalization in classical conditioning?

The ability of a response to occur to a similar, but different stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is the representativeness heuristic primarily based on?

How prototypical the case appears Signup and view all the answers

What is functional fixedness?

The inability to see an object being used for things other than its intended purpose Signup and view all the answers

How does Sternberg's theory of intelligence differ from Gardner's theory?

Sternberg proposes three independent intelligences Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between achievement tests and aptitude tests?

Achievement tests assess knowledge learned, while aptitude tests predict the ability to learn new skills Signup and view all the answers

What does priming refer to in psychological terms?

The activation of related knowledge structures in someone's mind Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the entity belief about intelligence?

Intelligence remains constant throughout life Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes creative intelligence?

The capacity to create novel ideas and solutions Signup and view all the answers

What is the anchoring and adjustment heuristic?

Relying on irrelevant information to make decisions Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes recognition from recall in memory retrieval?

Recognition uses external cues while recall does not. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to unattended information according to Atkins & Shiffrin's model of memory storage?

It is forgotten immediately. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of working memory?

To hold information for short periods while actively manipulating it. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of rehearsal involves a deeper understanding of information's meaning?

Elaborative rehearsal Signup and view all the answers

What type of amnesia is characterized by an inability to form new memories?

Anterograde amnesia Signup and view all the answers

In the dual process model of cognition, what characterizes Type 1 processing?

It is fast and automatic. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'cognitive misers' refer to in psychology?

The tendency to conserve cognitive resources and minimize extra thinking. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the availability heuristic?

Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples come to mind. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Sensation, Transduction, and Perception

Sensation is the physical process of how our sensory organs receive stimuli from the environment. Examples include light waves for vision and sound waves for hearing.
Transduction is the process of converting environmental stimuli into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain.
Perception is the psychological process of making sense of and interpreting sensory information.

Sensory Receptors

Vision: Rods and cones in the retina convert light waves into neural impulses.
Auditory: Hair cells in the inner ear convert sound waves into neural impulses.
Olfaction: Olfactory receptors in the nose bind to odorant molecules, signaling to the brain as smell.
Pain: Nociceptors send signals to the brain, triggering the sensation of pain.

Absolute Threshold and Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulation needed to detect a single sensation at a time.
JND: The minimum difference between two stimuli for them to be perceived as different.
Weber's Law: The JND is a constant proportion of the original stimulus. This means it's harder to tell the difference between two large stimuli than two small stimuli.

Eye Structures and Their Functions

Light Regulation: The pupil and iris are involved in regulating the amount of light entering the eye. The pupil controls the size of the opening, while the iris controls the pupil's size.
Distance Regulation: The lens regulates the distance for focusing on near or far objects.
Color Processing: Cones are responsible for color vision.

Light vs. Dark Adaptation

Dark Adaptation: The process of becoming more sensitive to light in a dark environment. This involves the sensitization of rods to low light levels.
Light Adaptation: The process of becoming less sensitive to light when moving from a dark environment to a bright one. Cones take longer to adapt to bright light after being in darkness.

Gestalt Theory

Gestalt theory suggests that the human mind has a natural tendency to perceive whole patterns or images rather than individual parts. It emphasizes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Fast and Slow Pain Nerve Fibers

Fast Pain Nerve Fibers: Myelinated fibers that transmit sharp and intense pain signals quickly.
Slow Pain Nerve Fibers: Unmyelinated fibers that transmit dull and achy pain signals slowly.

Classical Conditioning Terms

Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially elicits no specific response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
Unconditioned Response (UCR): The natural, unlearned response to the UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, comes to elicit a learned response.
Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the CS.

Generalization and Extinction in Classical Conditioning

Generalization: The tendency for stimuli similar to the CS to also elicit the CR.
Extinction: The gradual weakening and disappearance of the CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning is a type of learning where an organism learns to associate its behaviors with consequences.
Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
- Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behavior frequency.
- Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior frequency.
- Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.
- Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce behavior frequency.
- Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to reduce behavior frequency.

Reinforcement Schedules

Fixed Ratio (FR): Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed number of responses.
Variable Ratio (VR): Reinforcement is delivered after a variable number of responses.
Fixed Interval (FI): Reinforcement is delivered after a fixed amount of time has elapsed.
Variable Interval (VI): Reinforcement is delivered after a variable amount of time has elapsed.

Memory Stages

Encoding: Getting information into our brain for processing.
Storage: Retaining information in memory.
Retrieval: Retrieving information from memory.

Recall vs. Recognition

Recall: Retrieving information without any external cues.
Recognition: Retrieving information with external cues.

Selective Attention

The tendency to focus on and process specific pieces of information while excluding others.

Atkinson & Shiffrin’s Model of Memory Storage

Sensory Memory: Holds brief sensory information, typically lasting for a fraction of a second. Unattended information is lost.
Short-Term Memory: Holds a limited amount of information for about 20 seconds.
Long-Term Memory: Holds a vast amount of information relatively permanently.

Working Memory

Working memory is the active manipulation of information held in short-term memory for longer periods, allowing for processing and integration.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance short-term memory capacity.

Maintenance vs. Elaborative Rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal: Shallow encoding by repetition of information, typically focusing on the sound of words.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Deep encoding by focusing on the meaning of information and its associations.

Types of Amnesia

Retrograde Amnesia: Inability to retrieve past memories, often stemming from brain injury or neurological disorders.
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories, often linked to damage to the hippocampus.
Patient H.M.: Suffered from anterograde amnesia after his hippocampus was removed.

Types of Long-Term Memory

Explicit Long-Term Memory (Declarative): Consciously stored information, including facts, events, and personal experiences.
Implicit Long-Term Memory (Non-Declarative): Unconsciously stored information, including skills, habits, and conditioned responses.

Dual Process Model

Cognitive theory proposing two distinct systems of processing:
- System 1: Fast, automatic, and non-conscious processing.
- System 2: Slow, controlled, and conscious processing.
- Goals:
  - System 1: Efficient and quick decision-making.
  - System 2: Adjust for potential errors and biases in System 1.

Cognitive Misers

The tendency to minimize cognitive effort and avoid unnecessary thinking.

Common Heuristics

Availability Heuristic: Estimating the likelihood of events based on their ease of recall or availability in memory.
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the probability of an event based on its resemblance to a prototype or stereotype.
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic: Adjusting estimates or judgments based on an initial anchor, even if that anchor is irrelevant.

Schemas

Knowledge structures that represent concepts, objects, or events.
Examples:
- Self-schema: Beliefs and expectations about oneself.
- Schemas about people: Stereotypes about genders, races, or social groups.
- Scripts: Schemas that guide behavior in specific situations.

Priming and the Priming Effect

Priming: The activation or preparation of a schema or concept in memory.
Priming Effect: The tendency for previously primed information to be more easily processed or recalled.
Supraliminal Priming: Priming that occurs with conscious awareness of the prime.
Subliminal Priming: Priming that occurs without conscious awareness.

Spearman’s General Intelligence Theory

Proposes a single underlying intelligence factor (g) that influences all mental abilities.
So, a person who is good at math is also assumed to be good at language, etc.

Gardner and Sternberg’s Intelligence Theories

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Identifies eight independent intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence: Proposes three independent intelligences: analytical (academic), practical (street smart), and creative.

Creative Intelligence

The ability to generate original and valuable ideas, solutions, or products.

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to perceive objects only in their usual or typical functions, hindering creative problem solving.

Entity vs. Incremental Beliefs About Intelligence

Entity Belief: The belief that intelligence is a fixed trait that cannot be significantly changed.
Incremental Belief: The belief that intelligence is malleable and can be improved with effort and learning.

Achievement vs. Aptitude Tests

Achievement Tests: Measure what a person has learned.
Aptitude Tests: Predict a person's future learning potential or ability to acquire new skills.

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Description

This quiz covers the concepts of sensation, transduction, and perception, exploring how our sensory organs and receptors interact with environmental stimuli. It also delves into the absolute threshold and just noticeable difference (JND), essential for understanding sensory processing. Test your knowledge on how these processes shape our experiences.