Podcast
Questions and Answers
What type of research involves measuring associations between events?
What type of research involves measuring associations between events?
- Neuroscientific research
- Experimental research
- Descriptive research
- Correlational research (correct)
Which ethical principle pertains to standards in animal research?
Which ethical principle pertains to standards in animal research?
- Deception
- Animal welfare (correct)
- Informed consent
- Confidentiality
What is a potential threat to the validity of research that involves the influence of the experimenter's expectations on the participants?
What is a potential threat to the validity of research that involves the influence of the experimenter's expectations on the participants?
- Placebo effects
- Demand characteristics
- Confounding of variables
- Experimenter expectancy effects (correct)
What did the bystander effect demonstrate in the case of Kitty Genovese's attack?
What did the bystander effect demonstrate in the case of Kitty Genovese's attack?
What do psychologists use operational definitions for?
What do psychologists use operational definitions for?
Why is measurement in psychology considered challenging?
Why is measurement in psychology considered challenging?
What do self-report measures ask individuals to report on?
What do self-report measures ask individuals to report on?
How does the accuracy of self-report measures depend?
How does the accuracy of self-report measures depend?
What can yield a more complete picture in measuring stress and academic performance?
What can yield a more complete picture in measuring stress and academic performance?
What does the Over-Claiming Questionnaire (OCQ) measure?
What does the Over-Claiming Questionnaire (OCQ) measure?
When is unobtrusive measurement used?
When is unobtrusive measurement used?
How can researchers minimize social desirability bias in self-report measures?
How can researchers minimize social desirability bias in self-report measures?
What can distort participants' self-reports in psychological research?
What can distort participants' self-reports in psychological research?
What do psychologists measure behavior using?
What do psychologists measure behavior using?
What is the purpose of operational definitions in psychology?
What is the purpose of operational definitions in psychology?
What is the role of social desirability bias in self-report measures?
What is the role of social desirability bias in self-report measures?
What is the
What is the
What are good characteristics of a scientific theory?
What are good characteristics of a scientific theory?
What must abstract concepts like 'self-esteem' and 'intelligence' be for scientific study?
What must abstract concepts like 'self-esteem' and 'intelligence' be for scientific study?
What is the purpose of theory building through prediction and control?
What is the purpose of theory building through prediction and control?
What is the advantage of prediction based on understanding over prediction based on correlation?
What is the advantage of prediction based on understanding over prediction based on correlation?
What happens to theories even with successful predictions?
What happens to theories even with successful predictions?
What is the preferred characteristic of simpler theories?
What is the preferred characteristic of simpler theories?
What do scientists favor over common sense hindsight reasoning for understanding behavior?
What do scientists favor over common sense hindsight reasoning for understanding behavior?
What are variables in psychology?
What are variables in psychology?
Why must variables be clearly defined in scientific studies?
Why must variables be clearly defined in scientific studies?
What is the purpose of theory building in science?
What is the purpose of theory building in science?
What are good theories in science expected to do?
What are good theories in science expected to do?
What is the nature of successful scientific theories?
What is the nature of successful scientific theories?
What distinguishes science from other approaches to learning about the world?
What distinguishes science from other approaches to learning about the world?
What are the driving forces behind scientific inquiry?
What are the driving forces behind scientific inquiry?
What did Darley and Latané reason about the bystanders in the Kitty Genovese case?
What did Darley and Latané reason about the bystanders in the Kitty Genovese case?
What did Darley and Latané believe about the media's 'bystander apathy' explanation?
What did Darley and Latané believe about the media's 'bystander apathy' explanation?
What did Darley and Latané's research aim to investigate?
What did Darley and Latané's research aim to investigate?
What was the hypothesis proposed by Darley and Latané regarding the presence of multiple bystanders?
What was the hypothesis proposed by Darley and Latané regarding the presence of multiple bystanders?
What distinguishes science from other approaches to learning about the world?
What distinguishes science from other approaches to learning about the world?
What are the driving forces behind scientific inquiry?
What are the driving forces behind scientific inquiry?
What did Darley and Latané reason about the bystanders in the Kitty Genovese case?
What did Darley and Latané reason about the bystanders in the Kitty Genovese case?
What did Darley and Latané believe about the media's 'bystander apathy' explanation?
What did Darley and Latané believe about the media's 'bystander apathy' explanation?
What did Darley and Latané's research aim to investigate?
What did Darley and Latané's research aim to investigate?
What was the hypothesis proposed by Darley and Latané regarding the presence of multiple bystanders?
What was the hypothesis proposed by Darley and Latané regarding the presence of multiple bystanders?
What was the central role played by the diffusion of responsibility in Darley and Latané's research?
What was the central role played by the diffusion of responsibility in Darley and Latané's research?
What did Darley and Latané aim to understand through their investigation into bystander intervention?
What did Darley and Latané aim to understand through their investigation into bystander intervention?
What did the case of Kitty Genovese's murder and the subsequent bystander apathy lead to?
What did the case of Kitty Genovese's murder and the subsequent bystander apathy lead to?
What did psychologists take longer to adopt the scientific method for in behavioral science?
What did psychologists take longer to adopt the scientific method for in behavioral science?
What is the foundation of psychological science, guiding the process of asking and answering questions about the universe?
What is the foundation of psychological science, guiding the process of asking and answering questions about the universe?
What did the employees who wanted to call 911 and assist Katerine in the parking lot in Montreal face?
What did the employees who wanted to call 911 and assist Katerine in the parking lot in Montreal face?
What did Darley and Latané's research illustrate about the scientific process?
What did Darley and Latané's research illustrate about the scientific process?
What drove scientific inquiry in the case of Darley and Latané's investigation into bystander intervention?
What drove scientific inquiry in the case of Darley and Latané's investigation into bystander intervention?
What did the diffusion of responsibility lead to in the research conducted by Darley and Latané?
What did the diffusion of responsibility lead to in the research conducted by Darley and Latané?
What did the scientific process involve according to the text?
What did the scientific process involve according to the text?
What is the approximate number of cells interlinked through connections in the brain?
What is the approximate number of cells interlinked through connections in the brain?
Which part of the nervous system contains the brain?
Which part of the nervous system contains the brain?
What is Brad Pitt unable to remember about people?
What is Brad Pitt unable to remember about people?
What is the main characteristic of the brain, as described by James Watson?
What is the main characteristic of the brain, as described by James Watson?
What is the threshold for action potentials according to the all-or-none law?
What is the threshold for action potentials according to the all-or-none law?
Which type of anesthetics can block sodium channels and prevent pain impulses from being transmitted by neurons?
Which type of anesthetics can block sodium channels and prevent pain impulses from being transmitted by neurons?
What contributes to rapid nerve impulse conduction by allowing electrical conduction to skip from node to node?
What contributes to rapid nerve impulse conduction by allowing electrical conduction to skip from node to node?
What disrupts nerve impulse timing and can lead to uncoordinated movements and paralysis?
What disrupts nerve impulse timing and can lead to uncoordinated movements and paralysis?
What is the role of synaptic transmission in the nervous system?
What is the role of synaptic transmission in the nervous system?
What did Otto Loewi's experiments demonstrate about neural communication?
What did Otto Loewi's experiments demonstrate about neural communication?
What do neurotransmitters produced by neurons carry across the synapse to affect other neurons?
What do neurotransmitters produced by neurons carry across the synapse to affect other neurons?
What limits the rate of nerve impulses, placing an upper limit of about 300 impulses per second in humans?
What limits the rate of nerve impulses, placing an upper limit of about 300 impulses per second in humans?
Where is the myelin sheath most commonly found?
Where is the myelin sheath most commonly found?
What do drugs that alter the transit of sodium and potassium ions highlight the importance of for proper neuron function?
What do drugs that alter the transit of sodium and potassium ions highlight the importance of for proper neuron function?
What type of period places an upper limit on the rate of nerve impulses?
What type of period places an upper limit on the rate of nerve impulses?
What does the myelin sheath contribute to in infants?
What does the myelin sheath contribute to in infants?
What is the function of dendrites in neurons?
What is the function of dendrites in neurons?
What is the role of glial cells in the nervous system?
What is the role of glial cells in the nervous system?
What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system?
What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system?
What is the fundamental process involved in nerve activation?
What is the fundamental process involved in nerve activation?
What is the primary mode of communication between neurons, muscles, and glands?
What is the primary mode of communication between neurons, muscles, and glands?
What is the role of myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the role of myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the primary function of axons in neurons?
What is the primary function of axons in neurons?
What is the approximate number of neurons in the brain at birth?
What is the approximate number of neurons in the brain at birth?
What is the primary role of glial cells in modulating communication among neurons?
What is the primary role of glial cells in modulating communication among neurons?
What is the primary function of glial cells in protecting the brain?
What is the primary function of glial cells in protecting the brain?
What is the primary role of neurons in generating communication signals?
What is the primary role of neurons in generating communication signals?
What is the primary function of myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary function of myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the process of chemical communication in neurotransmission?
What is the process of chemical communication in neurotransmission?
Where does the synthesis of neurotransmitters occur?
Where does the synthesis of neurotransmitters occur?
What triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic space?
What triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules into the synaptic space?
What happens when neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What happens when neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the role of receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the role of receptor sites on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the effect of excitatory transmitters on the neuron's membrane?
What is the effect of excitatory transmitters on the neuron's membrane?
How do inhibitory transmitters affect the neuron's membrane?
How do inhibitory transmitters affect the neuron's membrane?
What is the purpose of neurotransmitter deactivation?
What is the purpose of neurotransmitter deactivation?
How does inhibition contribute to neural activity?
How does inhibition contribute to neural activity?
What is the role of balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes in the nervous system?
What is the role of balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes in the nervous system?
How does neurotransmitter deactivation occur?
How does neurotransmitter deactivation occur?
What is the significance of the specific shapes of receptor sites?
What is the significance of the specific shapes of receptor sites?
What is the approximate resting potential of a neuron?
What is the approximate resting potential of a neuron?
What is the key mechanism for the action potential in neurons?
What is the key mechanism for the action potential in neurons?
What is the membrane voltage during the action potential?
What is the membrane voltage during the action potential?
What is the primary cause of depolarization in a neuron?
What is the primary cause of depolarization in a neuron?
How is the resting potential of a neuron restored?
How is the resting potential of a neuron restored?
What is the approximate threshold for action potentials according to the all-or-none law?
What is the approximate threshold for action potentials according to the all-or-none law?
What is the primary role of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary role of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the process of creating a nerve impulse in a neuron primarily involve?
What is the process of creating a nerve impulse in a neuron primarily involve?
What is the primary role of the sodium-potassium pumps in a neuron?
What is the primary role of the sodium-potassium pumps in a neuron?
What is the primary function of axons in neurons?
What is the primary function of axons in neurons?
What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system?
What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system?
What is the primary cause of the sudden reversal in the neuron’s membrane voltage during an action potential?
What is the primary cause of the sudden reversal in the neuron’s membrane voltage during an action potential?
Which theory of motivation emphasizes the role of physiological needs and drives?
Which theory of motivation emphasizes the role of physiological needs and drives?
What is the primary focus of achievement goal theory in the context of motivation?
What is the primary focus of achievement goal theory in the context of motivation?
Which perspective on motivation emphasizes the influence of unconscious desires and self-fulfillment?
Which perspective on motivation emphasizes the influence of unconscious desires and self-fulfillment?
What is the primary focus of the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
What is the primary focus of the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion?
What does Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs range from?
What does Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs range from?
What does self-determination theory focus on as psychological needs?
What does self-determination theory focus on as psychological needs?
What does hunger regulation involve?
What does hunger regulation involve?
What percentage of energy does metabolism use for basal metabolism?
What percentage of energy does metabolism use for basal metabolism?
What do short-term signals induce in hunger regulation?
What do short-term signals induce in hunger regulation?
According to drive theory, what is the ultimate goal of motivated behavior?
According to drive theory, what is the ultimate goal of motivated behavior?
What do long-term signals monitor in hunger regulation?
What do long-term signals monitor in hunger regulation?
Which model of motivation is applied to regulate hunger, thirst, body temperature, weight, and sleep?
Which model of motivation is applied to regulate hunger, thirst, body temperature, weight, and sleep?
What is the concept of a set point in hunger regulation?
What is the concept of a set point in hunger regulation?
What do incentive theories of motivation focus on?
What do incentive theories of motivation focus on?
What do physiological signals for hunger include?
What do physiological signals for hunger include?
To what has incentive theories been applied in the study of drug abuse?
To what has incentive theories been applied in the study of drug abuse?
What do expectancy theories of motivation propose?
What do expectancy theories of motivation propose?
What do hunger pangs not depend on?
What do hunger pangs not depend on?
What does hunger regulation involve?
What does hunger regulation involve?
What do cognitive theorists distinguish between in terms of motivation?
What do cognitive theorists distinguish between in terms of motivation?
What does the overjustification hypothesis suggest?
What does the overjustification hypothesis suggest?
What is the primary cause of hunger pangs?
What is the primary cause of hunger pangs?
What does the self-determination theory focus on as psychological needs?
What does the self-determination theory focus on as psychological needs?
What does Maslow's hierarchy of needs distinguish between?
What does Maslow's hierarchy of needs distinguish between?
What does Maslow propose in his need hierarchy?
What does Maslow propose in his need hierarchy?
What distinguishes cognitive theorists' perspective on motivation?
What distinguishes cognitive theorists' perspective on motivation?
What is the main distinction made by Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
What is the main distinction made by Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
What does the overjustification hypothesis warn about?
What does the overjustification hypothesis warn about?
Which theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses in shaping behavior?
Which theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses in shaping behavior?
Which theory emphasizes three fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness?
Which theory emphasizes three fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness?
Which theory proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with need progression and regression based on satisfaction levels?
Which theory proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with need progression and regression based on satisfaction levels?
Which theory proposes that tissue deficits create drives like hunger?
Which theory proposes that tissue deficits create drives like hunger?
Which theory has been further developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in self-determination theory?
Which theory has been further developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in self-determination theory?
Which theory draws attention to human growth desires and has influenced diverse fields like philosophy, education, and business?
Which theory draws attention to human growth desires and has influenced diverse fields like philosophy, education, and business?
Which theory emphasizes the concept of 'self-actualization' and has been criticized for being vague?
Which theory emphasizes the concept of 'self-actualization' and has been criticized for being vague?
Which theory proposes that true relatedness can lead to a sense of freedom, and research supports the independent and additive effects of the three basic needs on positive outcomes?
Which theory proposes that true relatedness can lead to a sense of freedom, and research supports the independent and additive effects of the three basic needs on positive outcomes?
Which theory proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, and critics question whether people might focus on higher-level needs even when lower-level needs are not met?
Which theory proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, and critics question whether people might focus on higher-level needs even when lower-level needs are not met?
Which theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses, but research offers little support for his 'dual-instinct' model?
Which theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses, but research offers little support for his 'dual-instinct' model?
Which theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses, and has been criticized for being vague?
Which theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses, and has been criticized for being vague?
Which theory proposes that motivation is a process influencing behavior direction, vigour, and persistence?
Which theory proposes that motivation is a process influencing behavior direction, vigour, and persistence?
What distinguishes brain fingerprinting from polygraph examinations?
What distinguishes brain fingerprinting from polygraph examinations?
What was instrumental in exonerating Terry Harrington, a convicted murderer serving a life sentence in Iowa?
What was instrumental in exonerating Terry Harrington, a convicted murderer serving a life sentence in Iowa?
What does homeostasis require for regulation of the internal environment?
What does homeostasis require for regulation of the internal environment?
Which theory proposes that psychological motives have evolutionary underpinnings expressed through genes?
Which theory proposes that psychological motives have evolutionary underpinnings expressed through genes?
What does Clark Hull's drive theory propose about physiological disruptions to homeostasis?
What does Clark Hull's drive theory propose about physiological disruptions to homeostasis?
What is the primary focus of expectancy × value theory?
What is the primary focus of expectancy × value theory?
What does motivation encompass, influencing goal-directed behavior?
What does motivation encompass, influencing goal-directed behavior?
What do evolutionary psychologists propose about psychological motives?
What do evolutionary psychologists propose about psychological motives?
What is the role of instinct theory in motivating human behavior?
What is the role of instinct theory in motivating human behavior?
What is the primary focus of homeostasis in the body?
What is the primary focus of homeostasis in the body?
What do evolutionary psychologists propose about psychological motives?
What do evolutionary psychologists propose about psychological motives?
What is the primary role of homeostasis in motivating behavior according to Clark Hull's drive theory?
What is the primary role of homeostasis in motivating behavior according to Clark Hull's drive theory?
What is the approximate number of cells and connections in the human brain?
What is the approximate number of cells and connections in the human brain?
What specific aspect of facial recognition does Brad Pitt struggle with?
What specific aspect of facial recognition does Brad Pitt struggle with?
Which part of the brain is implicated in Brad Pitt's difficulty with remembering faces?
Which part of the brain is implicated in Brad Pitt's difficulty with remembering faces?
What is the analogy used by James Watson to describe the complexity of the brain?
What is the analogy used by James Watson to describe the complexity of the brain?
What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?
What is the primary function of glial cells in the nervous system?
What is the role of dendrites in neurons?
What is the role of dendrites in neurons?
What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system?
What is the approximate ratio of glial cells to neurons in the nervous system?
What is the function of myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the function of myelin sheath in neurons?
What is the primary cause of hunger pangs?
What is the primary cause of hunger pangs?
What is the process involved in nerve activation?
What is the process involved in nerve activation?
What is the fundamental nature of the electrical activity of neurons?
What is the fundamental nature of the electrical activity of neurons?
What is the primary function of axons in neurons?
What is the primary function of axons in neurons?
What is the primary role of the blood-brain barrier?
What is the primary role of the blood-brain barrier?
What is the primary function of glial cells in modulating communication among neurons?
What is the primary function of glial cells in modulating communication among neurons?
What is the primary purpose of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary purpose of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the main function of dendrites in neurons?
What is the main function of dendrites in neurons?
What is the primary function of inhibitory transmitters in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of inhibitory transmitters in neurotransmission?
What is the role of receptor sites in neurotransmission?
What is the role of receptor sites in neurotransmission?
How is neurotransmitter deactivation primarily achieved?
How is neurotransmitter deactivation primarily achieved?
What is the main role of synaptic vesicles in neurotransmission?
What is the main role of synaptic vesicles in neurotransmission?
What is the effect of excitatory transmitters on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the effect of excitatory transmitters on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the crucial balance for proper nervous system function?
What is the crucial balance for proper nervous system function?
What is the primary role of action potential in neurotransmission?
What is the primary role of action potential in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of synthesis in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of synthesis in neurotransmission?
What is the primary role of balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes in neurotransmission?
What is the primary role of balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes in neurotransmission?
What is the effect of inhibitory transmitters on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the effect of inhibitory transmitters on the postsynaptic neuron's membrane?
What is the primary role of neurotransmitter deactivation in neurotransmission?
What is the primary role of neurotransmitter deactivation in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of neurotransmitter binding in neurotransmission?
What is the primary function of neurotransmitter binding in neurotransmission?
What is the approximate membrane voltage during the action potential in a neuron?
What is the approximate membrane voltage during the action potential in a neuron?
What contributes to the restoration of the negative resting potential in a neuron?
What contributes to the restoration of the negative resting potential in a neuron?
What maintains the negative interior of a neuron by pumping out three sodium ions for every two potassium ions pumped into the cell?
What maintains the negative interior of a neuron by pumping out three sodium ions for every two potassium ions pumped into the cell?
What is the approximate resting potential of a neuron?
What is the approximate resting potential of a neuron?
What causes depolarization in a neuron?
What causes depolarization in a neuron?
What is the primary cause of the sudden reversal in a neuron’s membrane voltage during the action potential?
What is the primary cause of the sudden reversal in a neuron’s membrane voltage during the action potential?
What is the key mechanism for the action potential in neurons?
What is the key mechanism for the action potential in neurons?
What restores the negative resting potential in a neuron after depolarization?
What restores the negative resting potential in a neuron after depolarization?
What is the primary role of the sodium-potassium pumps in a neuron?
What is the primary role of the sodium-potassium pumps in a neuron?
What is the primary function of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary function of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary cause of the resting potential in a neuron?
What is the primary cause of the resting potential in a neuron?
What is the process of creating a nerve impulse in a neuron primarily involve?
What is the process of creating a nerve impulse in a neuron primarily involve?
What is the threshold for action potentials according to the all-or-none law?
What is the threshold for action potentials according to the all-or-none law?
What is the primary function of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary function of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What did Otto Loewi's experiments demonstrate about neural communication?
What did Otto Loewi's experiments demonstrate about neural communication?
What is the rate limit of nerve impulses in humans due to the absolute refractory period?
What is the rate limit of nerve impulses in humans due to the absolute refractory period?
What can local anesthetics like Novocain and Xylocaine block to prevent pain impulses from being transmitted by neurons?
What can local anesthetics like Novocain and Xylocaine block to prevent pain impulses from being transmitted by neurons?
What contributes to gains in muscular coordination in infants and is most commonly found in the nervous systems of higher animals?
What contributes to gains in muscular coordination in infants and is most commonly found in the nervous systems of higher animals?
What do neurotransmitters produced by neurons carry messages across the synapse to do?
What do neurotransmitters produced by neurons carry messages across the synapse to do?
What does damage to the myelin sheath, as in multiple sclerosis, disrupt?
What does damage to the myelin sheath, as in multiple sclerosis, disrupt?
What does the nervous system communicate through?
What does the nervous system communicate through?
What is the primary role of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary role of the myelin sheath in the nervous system?
What is the primary function of drugs that alter the transit of sodium and potassium ions?
What is the primary function of drugs that alter the transit of sodium and potassium ions?
What does the myelin sheath contribute to in infants?
What does the myelin sheath contribute to in infants?
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Study Notes
Scientific Understanding and Theory Building
- Scientific process is self-correcting: research supporting hypotheses increases confidence in theories
- Common sense hindsight reasoning is problematic for understanding behavior as it can offer contradictory explanations
- Scientists favor direct prediction, control, and theory building over hindsight understanding
- Good theory characteristics: integrates predictions, is testable, generates new hypotheses, and is not absolute truth
- Variables in psychology are characteristics that can vary and may represent abstract concepts
- Abstract concepts like "self-esteem," "stress," and "intelligence" must be measurable for scientific study
- Variables must be clearly defined to ensure consistent measurement across different studies
- Theory building through prediction and control satisfies curiosity, increases knowledge, and generates principles
- Prediction based on understanding has advantages over prediction based on correlation
- Good theories organize information, are testable, and generate new hypotheses and predictions
- Simpler theories are preferred if they can explain and predict phenomena equally well
- Even with successful predictions, theories are never regarded as absolute truth and may be displaced by newer, more accurate ones
Bystander Intervention and Scientific Principles in Psychology
- In 2001, 17-year-old Katerine was severely beaten and left half-naked in a parking lot in Montreal, where she remained in a coma for hours, ignored by pedestrians and employees working at a nearby call center.
- The employees who wanted to call 911 and assist Katerine were told not to do so by their supervisor, highlighting the psychological puzzle of bystander intervention.
- The scientific method, involving curiosity, skepticism, and open-mindedness, is the foundation of psychological science, guiding the process of asking and answering questions about the universe.
- Psychologists took longer to adopt the scientific method for behavioral science due to the intangible subject matter compared to the physical sciences.
- Scientific attitudes, such as curiosity and skepticism, drive scientific inquiry, as seen in the case of two psychology professors, John Darley and Bibb Latané, who investigated bystander apathy after the Kitty Genovese murder.
- Darley and Latané's research illustrated the basic steps of the scientific process, from identifying a question of interest to testing hypotheses by conducting research.
- Their investigation into bystander intervention aimed to understand why people sometimes fail to help a victim in need during an emergency, even when there is little or no personal risk.
- The diffusion of responsibility, where each person feels decreased personal responsibility for intervening in the presence of multiple bystanders, played a central role in their research.
- The researchers conducted experiments to test their hypothesis, manipulating the perceived number of bystanders in controlled settings to measure the participants' likelihood of intervening.
- The case of Kitty Genovese's murder and the subsequent bystander apathy led to a deeper exploration of the factors that increase or decrease the likelihood of bystander intervention during emergencies.
- The scientific process involves a continuous interplay between observing and explaining events, sparking curiosity and questions of interest that drive scientific inquiry.
- These principles and methods not only form the foundation of psychological science but also promote critical thinking, which can serve well in many aspects of life.
Neurotransmission Process Overview
- Process of chemical communication involves synthesis, storage, release, binding, and deactivation
- Synthesis occurs inside neurons; molecules are stored in synaptic vesicles
- Action potential triggers vesicles to release molecules into synaptic space
- Molecules bind to receptor sites on postsynaptic neuron's membrane
- Receptor sites have specific shapes to fit neurotransmitter molecules
- Binding of neurotransmitter can have excitatory or inhibitory effects
- Excitatory transmitters depolarize membrane, increasing likelihood of action potential
- Inhibitory transmitters hyperpolarize membrane, decreasing likelihood of action potential
- Balance between excitatory and inhibitory processes is crucial for proper nervous system function
- Inhibition fine-tunes neural activity and prevents uncoordinated discharge
- Neurotransmitter deactivation occurs through breakdown by chemicals or reuptake
- Deactivation shuts off neurotransmitter's activation or inhibition of the neuron
Neuron Action Potential Process
- Neurons have a resting potential due to an uneven distribution of ions, with the interior being negative compared to the outside
- A nerve impulse or action potential is produced when the electrical charge of the resting potential reverses due to ion flow in and out through the cell membrane
- The action potential is a sudden reversal in the neuron’s membrane voltage, during which the membrane voltage momentarily moves from 270 millivolts to 140 millivolts
- The process of creating a nerve impulse involves the exchange of electrically charged atoms called ions, such as sodium and potassium
- The key mechanism for the action potential involves the action of sodium and potassium ion channels in the cell membrane
- When a neuron is stimulated, nearby sodium channels open, allowing positively charged sodium ions to flood into the axon, creating depolarization
- In response to depolarization, the cell closes its sodium channels and positively charged potassium ions flow out through their channels, restoring the negative resting potential
- The resting potential is restored through the action of sodium-potassium pumps, which maintain the negative interior by pumping out three sodium ions for every two potassium ions pumped into the cell
- The process of depolarization that creates graded and action potentials involves the opening and closing of sodium and potassium channels, leading to the flow of ions in and out of the cell
- The resting potential of a neuron is around 70 millivolts and is caused by the uneven distribution of positively and negatively charged ions, with a greater concentration of positively charged sodium ions outside the cell
- The action potential, or nerve impulse, spreads to adjacent parts of the neuron’s membrane, causing a chain reaction
- The process of depolarization and repolarization, involving the flow of sodium and potassium ions, leads to the creation and restoration of the action potential and resting potential, respectively
Understanding Motivation Theories
- Maslow's need hierarchy model is criticized for being vague, but it draws attention to human growth desires and has influenced diverse fields like philosophy, education, and business.
- Freud's psychodynamic theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses in shaping behavior, but research offers little support for his "dual-instinct" model.
- Humanist Abraham Maslow focused on personal growth, introducing the concept of a need hierarchy, which has been further developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in self-determination theory.
- Self-determination theory emphasizes three fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness, with fulfillment leading to psychological and physical well-being.
- Maslow's need hierarchy proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with need progression and regression based on satisfaction levels, but critics question whether people might focus on higher-level needs even when lower-level needs are not met.
- Relatedness complements autonomy, as true relatedness can lead to a sense of freedom, and research supports the independent and additive effects of the three basic needs on positive outcomes.
- Motivation is a process influencing behavior direction, vigour, and persistence, with evolutionary psychologists proposing genetically based predispositions, homeostatic models emphasizing equilibrium maintenance, and drive theories suggesting that tissue deficits create drives like hunger.
- Critics question the validity of Maslow's need hierarchy and the concept of "self-actualization" but recognize its influence and attention to human growth desires.
- Freud's psychodynamic theory emphasizes the role of unconscious impulses and psychological defenses, but research offers little support for his "dual-instinct" model.
- Self-determination theory emphasizes three fundamental psychological needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness, with fulfillment leading to psychological and physical well-being.
- Maslow's need hierarchy proposes that needs are arranged in a hierarchy, with need progression and regression based on satisfaction levels, but critics question whether people might focus on higher-level needs even when lower-level needs are not met.
- Relatedness complements autonomy, as true relatedness can lead to a sense of freedom, and research supports the independent and additive effects of the three basic needs on positive outcomes.
Brain Fingerprinting and Motivation Theories
- "Brain fingerprinting" uses brainwave monitoring to determine if a suspect has details of a crime stored in their brain.
- Brain fingerprinting was instrumental in exonerating Terry Harrington, a convicted murderer serving a life sentence in Iowa.
- Unlike polygraph examinations, brain fingerprinting has been ruled admissible in U.S. courts.
- Motivation encompasses eating, sexual behavior, thrill-seeking, and affiliation, influencing goal-directed behavior.
- Heredity accounts for differences in motivated behavior, such as the desire for security.
- Evolutionary psychologists propose that psychological motives have evolutionary underpinnings expressed through genes.
- Instinct theory, inspired by Darwin's theory of evolution, suggests that instincts motivate much of human behavior.
- Homeostasis is a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain.
- Homeostasis requires a sensory mechanism for detecting changes, a response system, and a control center.
- According to Clark Hull's drive theory, physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives that motivate behavior.
- Homeostasis can involve learned behaviors to regulate the internal environment.
- According to expectancy × value theory, people may respond differently to the same incentive based on their expectations and the value they place on the incentive.
Neural Communication and Transmission
- Action potential is generated through the opening and closing of sodium and potassium channels, leading to a rapid flow of ions in and out of the neuron.
- The all-or-none law governs action potentials, which occur at a uniform and maximum intensity, or not at all, with a threshold of 250 millivolts.
- Local anesthetics like Novocain and Xylocaine can block sodium channels, preventing pain impulses from being transmitted by neurons.
- The myelin sheath, derived from glial cells, insulates axons and contributes to rapid nerve impulse conduction by allowing electrical conduction to skip from node to node.
- Damage to the myelin sheath, as in multiple sclerosis, disrupts nerve impulse timing and can lead to uncoordinated movements and paralysis.
- The nervous system communicates through synaptic transmission, which involves the release of chemical neurotransmitters at the synaptic cleft between neurons.
- Otto Loewi's experiments demonstrated that neurons release chemicals, leading to the discovery of chemical neurotransmission and the synaptic cleft.
- Neurotransmitters produced by neurons carry messages across the synapse to either excite or inhibit the firing of other neurons.
- The discovery of the synaptic cleft raised questions about how messages are carried and how they affect the next neuron in the circuit.
- The rate of nerve impulses is limited by the absolute refractory period, during which the neuron cannot be stimulated, placing an upper limit of about 300 impulses per second in humans.
- The myelin sheath contributes to gains in muscular coordination in infants and is most commonly found in the nervous systems of higher animals.
- Drugs that alter the transit of sodium and potassium ions can decrease or prevent neural functioning, highlighting the importance of ion balance for proper neuron function.
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