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Questions and Answers
What is one of the main purposes of providing citations in scientific writing?
What is one of the main purposes of providing citations in scientific writing?
- To give credit to the authors contributing (correct)
- To confuse the reader
- To make the paper longer
- To eliminate the need for footnotes
Peer review involves feedback from specialists and helps ensure the quality of published studies.
Peer review involves feedback from specialists and helps ensure the quality of published studies.
True (A)
What are theories, and why are they considered helpful?
What are theories, and why are they considered helpful?
Theories are statements formulated to explain phenomena and establish a framework for meaningful generalizations.
A strong theory must be able to account for most, if not all, of the existing _____ in its domain.
A strong theory must be able to account for most, if not all, of the existing _____ in its domain.
Which of the following is NOT a standard for judging the strength of a theory?
Which of the following is NOT a standard for judging the strength of a theory?
Match the following concepts with their definitions:
Match the following concepts with their definitions:
A hypothesis is more general than a theory.
A hypothesis is more general than a theory.
What is the primary difference between a study's purpose and its research question?
What is the primary difference between a study's purpose and its research question?
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity caused by changes in measuring instruments or observers?
Which of the following is a threat to internal validity caused by changes in measuring instruments or observers?
The Pygmalion effect refers to the phenomenon where subjects perform better when they are being monitored.
The Pygmalion effect refers to the phenomenon where subjects perform better when they are being monitored.
What does attrition refer to in research studies?
What does attrition refer to in research studies?
A ________ study gathers past information to analyze for research.
A ________ study gathers past information to analyze for research.
Match the following research design features with their descriptions:
Match the following research design features with their descriptions:
Which of the following represents a design that tests two different age groups at the same time?
Which of the following represents a design that tests two different age groups at the same time?
Statistical regression involves subjects naturally gravitating towards average scores over repeated tests.
Statistical regression involves subjects naturally gravitating towards average scores over repeated tests.
What is the main difference between a priori and post hoc questions?
What is the main difference between a priori and post hoc questions?
What is the purpose of a deferred treatment control condition?
What is the purpose of a deferred treatment control condition?
In a time series experimental design, only group data is collected.
In a time series experimental design, only group data is collected.
What does it mean when a participant is referred to as their own control?
What does it mean when a participant is referred to as their own control?
In a within-group repeated measures design, the main advantage is that variability due to individual ______ is minimized.
In a within-group repeated measures design, the main advantage is that variability due to individual ______ is minimized.
Match the following experimental designs with their descriptions:
Match the following experimental designs with their descriptions:
What is the minimum number of data points required in a baseline phase?
What is the minimum number of data points required in a baseline phase?
In the ABA design, researchers prefer to see the performance maintain in the second A phase.
In the ABA design, researchers prefer to see the performance maintain in the second A phase.
How does the removal of treatment in a time series phase differ from a control condition?
How does the removal of treatment in a time series phase differ from a control condition?
What can high attrition lead to in a study?
What can high attrition lead to in a study?
A heterogeneous participant sample provides better internal validity than a homogeneous one.
A heterogeneous participant sample provides better internal validity than a homogeneous one.
What is external validity?
What is external validity?
A design that uses very large sample sizes to detect true effects or associations is called _____ and _____ design.
A design that uses very large sample sizes to detect true effects or associations is called _____ and _____ design.
Match the following data types with their definitions:
Match the following data types with their definitions:
What are two ways to investigate heterogeneous populations with good experimental control?
What are two ways to investigate heterogeneous populations with good experimental control?
Why is it important to collect many data points per participant in a single-subject design?
Why is it important to collect many data points per participant in a single-subject design?
The trade-off between internal and external validity often requires sacrificing some internal validity for greater external validity.
The trade-off between internal and external validity often requires sacrificing some internal validity for greater external validity.
What does the second B phase in an ABAB design provide evidence for?
What does the second B phase in an ABAB design provide evidence for?
In a multiple baseline across subjects design, the same intervention is applied to different target behaviors.
In a multiple baseline across subjects design, the same intervention is applied to different target behaviors.
What is a potential issue if both control behavior and treatment behavior improve simultaneously?
What is a potential issue if both control behavior and treatment behavior improve simultaneously?
The three principles of fair treatment for research participants are respect for persons, beneficence, and _______.
The three principles of fair treatment for research participants are respect for persons, beneficence, and _______.
Match the following terms with their definitions:
Match the following terms with their definitions:
What does graphical analysis in single-subject studies help to reveal?
What does graphical analysis in single-subject studies help to reveal?
Possibility is more associated with group designs in terms of treatment effects.
Possibility is more associated with group designs in terms of treatment effects.
What are the two opposing forces in the explanation of study participation on a consent form?
What are the two opposing forces in the explanation of study participation on a consent form?
What can high attrition in a study lead to?
What can high attrition in a study lead to?
Homogeneous samples are generally better for internal validity than heterogeneous samples.
Homogeneous samples are generally better for internal validity than heterogeneous samples.
What is external validity?
What is external validity?
A study using large sample sizes to detect true effects is known as _____ and _____ design.
A study using large sample sizes to detect true effects is known as _____ and _____ design.
Match the following data types with their characteristics:
Match the following data types with their characteristics:
What is the role of an independent variable in an experiment?
What is the role of an independent variable in an experiment?
Extraneous variables do not affect the outcome of a study.
Extraneous variables do not affect the outcome of a study.
What does internal validity refer to in an experimental study?
What does internal validity refer to in an experimental study?
A _____ variable is one that can be manipulated in an experiment.
A _____ variable is one that can be manipulated in an experiment.
Match the following types of variables with their definitions:
Match the following types of variables with their definitions:
Which of the following accurately describes a predictor variable?
Which of the following accurately describes a predictor variable?
Internal validity is considered 'tight' when it provides a strong account of causation between variables.
Internal validity is considered 'tight' when it provides a strong account of causation between variables.
What distinguishes categorical variables from continuous variables?
What distinguishes categorical variables from continuous variables?
What is a deferred treatment control condition primarily designed to avoid?
What is a deferred treatment control condition primarily designed to avoid?
In a within-group repeated measures design, individual differences among participants are increased.
In a within-group repeated measures design, individual differences among participants are increased.
What is the minimum number of data points required in a baseline phase?
What is the minimum number of data points required in a baseline phase?
In time series designs, the collection of measurements over a period of time involves systematic _____ of the dependent variable.
In time series designs, the collection of measurements over a period of time involves systematic _____ of the dependent variable.
Match the following time series designs with their descriptions:
Match the following time series designs with their descriptions:
Which design specifically shows a participant compared to themselves?
Which design specifically shows a participant compared to themselves?
A larger sample size guarantees higher external validity in research studies.
A larger sample size guarantees higher external validity in research studies.
What happens in an ABA design if performance drops in the second A phase?
What happens in an ABA design if performance drops in the second A phase?
The term _____ is used to describe when criteria or levels of achievement change as each is reached.
The term _____ is used to describe when criteria or levels of achievement change as each is reached.
Which of these statements is a primary benefit of a within-group repeated measures design?
Which of these statements is a primary benefit of a within-group repeated measures design?
What does a second B phase in an ABAB design indicate?
What does a second B phase in an ABAB design indicate?
In multiple baseline across subjects design, one intervention is provided to multiple subjects measuring the same behavior.
In multiple baseline across subjects design, one intervention is provided to multiple subjects measuring the same behavior.
What is a key factor to consider if a control behavior improves simultaneously as a treatment behavior?
What is a key factor to consider if a control behavior improves simultaneously as a treatment behavior?
The three principles of fair treatment for research participants are respect for persons, beneficence, and _______.
The three principles of fair treatment for research participants are respect for persons, beneficence, and _______.
Match the following designs with their definitions:
Match the following designs with their definitions:
Why do researchers conduct graphical analysis in single-subject studies?
Why do researchers conduct graphical analysis in single-subject studies?
Possibility is more related to group designs than it is to single-subject designs.
Possibility is more related to group designs than it is to single-subject designs.
What can you conclude about treatment efficacy if control behavior improves when treatment behavior does?
What can you conclude about treatment efficacy if control behavior improves when treatment behavior does?
In research ethics, beneficence refers to the study's ability to provide ____ to participants and the population.
In research ethics, beneficence refers to the study's ability to provide ____ to participants and the population.
Match the research terms with their descriptions:
Match the research terms with their descriptions:
Which threat to internal validity occurs when subjects change due to natural development over time?
Which threat to internal validity occurs when subjects change due to natural development over time?
The Pygmalion effect suggests that individuals perform better when they are under observation.
The Pygmalion effect suggests that individuals perform better when they are under observation.
What is the difference between a priori and post hoc questions?
What is the difference between a priori and post hoc questions?
________ occurs when participants drop out of a study, potentially skewing results.
________ occurs when participants drop out of a study, potentially skewing results.
Match the following terms related to research design:
Match the following terms related to research design:
Which statement best describes the Hawthorne effect?
Which statement best describes the Hawthorne effect?
Statistical regression means that subjects with low scores tend to test lower in subsequent assessments.
Statistical regression means that subjects with low scores tend to test lower in subsequent assessments.
What is the main purpose of randomization in participant selection?
What is the main purpose of randomization in participant selection?
Within-group designs allow researchers to use each participant as their own _______.
Within-group designs allow researchers to use each participant as their own _______.
Which of the following best describes treatment order effects?
Which of the following best describes treatment order effects?
Study Notes
Variables
- A measurable characteristic that can change or be changed.
- Extraneous: Variables that may affect the dependent variable, influencing, moderating, or enhancing the effect of the independent variable.
- Confounding: Extraneous variables that aren't controlled for in a study.
- Controlled: Extraneous variables recognized and kept constant to minimize their impact.
- Predictor: Variables studied to determine their relationship, investigating how strongly and in what ways they are associated.
- Predicted: Variables studied to determine their relationship, investigating how strongly and in what ways they are associated.
- Active: Variables that can be manipulated, such as the intensity of a treatment.
- Attribute: Variables that can't be changed, such as gender or language background.
- Categorical: Measured as present or absent, with discrete categories.
- Continuum: Measured on a scale with a range of infinite values.
Experimental Control
- Internal Validity: Sufficient control of extraneous variables and attributes to ensure that changes in the dependent variable are caused by the independent variable.
- "Tight" Design: High internal validity, minimizing potential threats.
- "Full of Holes" Design: Low internal validity, allowing for more explanations beyond the independent variable's influence.
- "Rules out Competing Explanations": High internal validity demonstrates that the observed effects are due to the independent variable rather than other factors.
Threats to Internal Validity
- History: Events occurring during a study that can influence the dependent variable.
- Maturation: Changes in participants over time that can influence the dependent variable.
- Reactive Measures: Participants' reactions to a pretest that can influence subsequent tests.
- Instrumentation: Changes in the calibration of measuring instruments or observers that can influence results.
- Statistical Regression: Tendency for extreme scores to regress toward the mean.
- Differential Subject Selection: Difference in characteristics between groups that can influence results.
- Attrition: Participants dropping out of the study, potentially introducing bias.
- Treatment Order Effects: The sequence of treatments can influence results.
- Researcher Bias: Researcher expectations or beliefs that can influence results.
- Effects of Being in a Study:
- Pygmalian Effect: Participants' performance rises due to the researcher's expectations.
- Hawthorne Effect: Participants' behavior changes due to the awareness of being observed.
- Placebo Effect: Participants' belief in treatment, even if it's inert, leads to perceived benefits.
Research Questions
- A priori: Questions formulated before research begins.
- Post hoc: Questions that arise during or after research. Post hoc answers are less certain because they lack sufficient evidence.
Research Design Features
- Single-Subject: Data reported individually.
- Group: Averages of multiple data points.
- Within-Group: Participants serve as their own control, comparing different conditions within the same individuals.
- Between-Group: Participants are randomly assigned to different groups, comparing across groups.
- Retrospective: Studying past information.
- Prospective: Gathering information in the present.
- Longitudinal: Observing the same individuals over time.
- Cross-Sectional: Comparing different individuals at the same time.
- Deferred Treatment Control Condition: Control group receives the intervention after an initial assessment period, allowing for a stable baseline comparison.
- Ethical Considerations: Deferred treatment ensures that the control group eventually benefits from the intervention.
Within- Group Repeated Measures Design
- Comparison of two treatments: Allows comparing the effects of different treatments within the same individuals, reducing variability.
- Greater experimental control: Minimizes individual difference variability, leading to greater statistical power.
Time Series Experimental Design
- Single-subject or small-group designs: Systematic collection of measurements over time to observe the effects of interventions.
- Phases: Distinct periods of time in a time-series design, such as baseline and treatment phases.
- Minimum Data Points: Minimum of three data points per phase are needed with more points being better to show a clear pattern.
Time Series Designs
- AB Design: Baseline (A) followed by treatment (B) and ends at the end of treatment.
- ABAB Design: Baseline (A) followed by treatment (B), then back to baseline (A) and finally back to treatment (B).
- Alternating Treatments Design: Alternating different treatments (Tx A, Tx B) to compare their effects.
- Changing Criterion Design: Treatment target or criterion changes as each is reached.
Multiple Baseline Designs
- Multiple Baseline Across Subjects: Applying an intervention to multiple subjects with shared characteristics, observing its effect across individuals.
- Multiple Baseline Across Behaviors: Applying an intervention to a single participant's different behaviors, observing its effect across behaviors.
Data Analysis
- Graphical Analysis: Visualizing the full pattern of data in a single-subject study, providing insights into trends and changes.
Single-Subject Design vs Group Design
- Possibility vs. Probability: Single-subject designs focus on the possibility of an effect, while group designs analyze the probability.
Research Ethics
- Three Principles:
- Respect for Persons: Protecting participants with diminished autonomy and allowing them to withdraw at any time.
- Beneficence: Ensuring benefits for participants and society, with acceptable risk-benefit ratio.
- (Social) Justice: Ensuring fairness and unbiased distribution of benefits and burdens across society.
- Consent Forms: Balancing detailed information with clear language comprehension for participants.
Sample Size
- Group Designs: Factors influencing sample size include the number of variables, population characteristics, research design, and measurement precision.
- Homogeneous Samples: Samples with similar characteristics which are better for internal validity.
- Heterogeneous Samples: Samples with diverse characteristics.
- Large Sample Sizes: Used in surveys and epidemiological studies for representativeness and detecting true associations
- Single-Subject Designs: Numerous data points per participant for a more comprehensive understanding of individual changes.
Validity
- External Validity: The generalizability of research findings to the target population.
- Internal Validity-External Validity Trade-off: Sometimes sacrificing internal validity for better applicability to the general population.
Data Types
- Ratio Data: Equal intervals with a meaningful zero point.
- Ordinal Data: Ordered categories with unequal intervals.
- Interval Data: Equal intervals but no true zero point.
- Categorical Data: Mutually exclusive categories, often used for qualitative descriptions.
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Description
Test your knowledge on the fundamentals of scientific writing, theories, and research methodologies. This quiz covers important concepts like citations, hypotheses, research questions, and various research designs. Perfect for students and enthusiasts looking to enhance their understanding of scientific principles.
