Scientific Reasoning Fundamentals

Scientific Reasoning

• Inductive reasoning in science differs from informal reasoning practiced daily.
• Empiricism is a significant aspect of scientific research.
• A good scientific explanation or theory is essential.
• Experimental and correlational research have major design differences.
• Researchers might opt for correlational research over an experiment in certain situations.
• Experiments can show causality, which correlation cannot.
• Correlation can be interpreted as positive, negative, or zero.
• The strength of a correlation indicates the relationship's significance; for instance, -0.9 is a strong negative correlation, and +0.3 is a weak positive correlation.
• Key components of research involve variables (independent, dependent, confounding), data collection methods, hypothesis testing, testable hypotheses, and validity (internal vs. external).
• P-values and confidence intervals help determine the reliability and statistical significance of research findings.
• Random sampling is crucial for making generalizations.
• Sampling bias can occur, affecting the validity of results.
• When evaluating research, sample size, sample selection, and statistical significance are important.

The Self and Personality

• The three perspectives of the self—social actor, motivated agent, and autobiographical author—contribute to an overall sense of self.
• "The Self as Social Actor," "The Self as Motivated Agent," and "The Self as Autobiographical Author" have distinct differences.
• Projective and objective approaches to personality assessment differ considerably.
• "Projective Tests" and "Objective Tests" are distinct within personality assessment.
• Projective tests, like the Rorschach Inkblot Test and Sentence Completion Test, contrast with objective tests like MBTI, EPI, and FFM.
• Projective and objective personality tests have strengths and weaknesses, including reliability and validity issues.
• Projective personality tests, such as the sentence completion test, have limitations due to the unstandardized assessment of responses. The validity and reliability of personality tests are important.
• There are similarities and differences between the objective personality tests MBTI, EPI, and FFM.
• The MBTI uses an archetypal approach, the EPI assesses three traits, and the FFM assesses five traits.
• Extraversion and neuroticism significantly influence behavioral responses to stressful situations (approach- versus avoidance-oriented motivation).
• Personality can predict behavior in high-stress environments (behavioral inhibition system vs behavioral activation system).
• Traits differ from facets of personality; there is a hierarchy of traits and facets.
• Facets of extraversion (e.g., activity) and neuroticism (e.g., anxiety) explain variance in life satisfaction as determined by Røysamb et al. (2018).
• Genetics, personality, other psychological factors, and social factors can predict different life outcomes, like academic achievement, ability to navigate social situations, occupational success, and divorce.
• Situational factors influence personality and life outcomes.
• Roberts et al. (2007) and Røysamb et al. (2018) were compared to analyze personality predictors of achievement and life satisfaction.

Motivation and Social Cognition

• There are differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
• Motivation types vary.
• Goals can be pursued for extrinsic reasons, such as getting a good job and making money, or for intrinsic reasons, like aligning with interests and happiness.
• Types of goals that drive human behavior include performance vs. mastery goals and prevention vs. promotion-focused goals.
• Self-determination theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and expectancy theory explain motivation.
• Factors can increase and decrease motivation.
• Reasons for choosing and pursuing goals include Maslow's hierarchy, expectancy theory (expectancy, instrumentality, and valence), and self-determination theory (competency, relatedness, and autonomy).
• Goal commitment, goal adoption, self-regulation, and self-control influence persistence.
• Commitment and progress towards goals, self-regulation, and control relate to concepts from the NOBA module and Baumeister’s ego-depletion study.
• Schemas and stereotypes affect perception and interaction with others.
• Key concepts include schemas, heuristics, and stereotyping.
• Expectations of how people should behave or how situations should play out impact approaches and decisions.
• Psychological effects of being in a group, including group cohesion, conformity, groupthink, and social facilitation/inhibition, explain group behavior.
• Social psychology experiments, like Asch’s line experiment, Milgram’s shock experiment, and Zimbardo’s prison experiment, demonstrate the effects of groups.
• A curvilinear relationship exists between stress and performance, where the presence of others can lead to stress and poor performance (social inhibition).
• Social norms, roles, and expectations shape group dynamics and individual behavior.
• Consequences of violating social norms are observed in results from classic social psychology experiments.