Scientific Foundations of Psychology
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Questions and Answers

Which psychological approach emphasizes the study of observable events only?

  • Behavioral (correct)
  • Humanistic
  • Psychoanalytic
  • Cognitive

    • What does the Gestalt perspective primarily focus on in psychology?

  • The organization of visual perceptions (correct)
  • The role of unconscious motives
  • The cognitive processes involved in decision making
  • The genetic basis of behavior

    • Which of the following psychological approaches considers the influence of early childhood experiences on personality development?

  • Cognitive
  • Psychoanalytic (correct)
  • Evolutionary
  • Biological

    • Which psychological approach combines biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior?

    <p>Biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of behaviors does the Evolutionary perspective in psychology focus on?

    <p>Behaviors that enhance reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach is concerned with human potential and personal growth?

    <p>Humanistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of acetylcholine in the nervous system?

    <p>Enables muscle memory, action, and learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with mood regulation and is linked to depression when undersupplied?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes an agonist in relation to neurotransmitter action?

    <p>Binds to receptor sites and produces a similar effect to neurotransmitters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for coordinating movements?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the lateral hypothalamus play in the body's appetite control?

    <p>Stimulates hunger when activated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which imaging technology is best for detecting radioactive glucose consumption in the brain?

    <p>PET scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does neuroplasticity refer to in the context of the nervous system?

    <p>The ability to change and adapt based on environmental input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pharmacological effect is associated with cocaine administration?

    <p>Increase in euphoric energy levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the medulla in the brainstem?

    <p>Controlling autonomic functions like breathing and heartbeat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of applied research?

    <p>To resolve specific real-world problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the Hawthorne effect?

    <p>Participants exhibit different behaviors when they know they are being observed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which variable is manipulated by researchers in an experiment?

    <p>Independent variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes a variable that is not a dependent or independent variable but still affects the outcome?

    <p>Extraneous variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the myelin sheath in a neuron?

    <p>To insulate the axon and speed up signal transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of statistics, how is the median defined?

    <p>The middle value when scores are arranged in order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ethical guideline mandates that participants must be informed about the nature of a study before consenting?

    <p>Informed consent requirement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of sleep is most associated with hallucinations that lack storylines?

    <p>NREM-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by brief moments when a person stops breathing during sleep?

    <p>Sleep apnea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle states that the difference threshold is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus?

    <p>Weber’s law</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept describes the process of integrating elements to create a configuration that is not merely a collection of parts?

    <p>Gestalt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth perception cue involves the eyes rotating inward towards an object as it gets closer?

    <p>Convergence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What structure of the eye is primarily responsible for changing the focus of light onto the retina?

    <p>Lens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process converts light energy into neural impulses in the eye?

    <p>Phototransduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which monocular depth cue suggests that objects higher in the visual field are perceived as being further away?

    <p>Relative height</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for detecting color and detail in bright light conditions?

    <p>Cones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does NOT occur during REM sleep?

    <p>Sleepwalking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory explains the perception of color as processed through opposing pairs?

    <p>Opponent-Process theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key function of the cochlea in the auditory system?

    <p>Converts sound waves into neural impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of conditioning involves associating a neutral stimulus with an involuntary response?

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of taste aversion?

    <p>Involves classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which layer of the ear is primarily responsible for conducting sound through the external environment?

    <p>Auditory canal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of sensory perception, what is synesthesia?

    <p>A condition where one sense triggers another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the Gate-Control theory of pain suggest?

    <p>The spinal cord can open and close 'gates' for pain signals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of perceptual constancy allows us to perceive an object as the same color despite changes in lighting?

    <p>Color constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach focuses on the physiological bases of behavior?

    <p>Biological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the biopsychosocial approach in psychology combine?

    <p>Biological, psychological, and social factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological perspective argues that perception is organized by the mind as a whole?

    <p>Gestalt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach to psychology primarily studies thoughts, memory, and language?

    <p>Cognitive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main premise of the psychoanalytic approach in psychology?

    <p>Unconscious motives and early experiences shape personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological perspective focuses on the role of natural selection in shaping behaviors?

    <p>Evolutionary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of operational definitions in research?

    <p>To ensure variables can be replicated accurately</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In correlational research, what does a correlation coefficient of r = +0.86 indicate?

    <p>A strong positive relationship between the variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ethical guideline ensures that researchers consider the well-being of human participants?

    <p>Cost-benefit analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method allows researchers to compare the same individuals over time?

    <p>Longitudinal study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes the control group in an experiment?

    <p>It does not receive the treatment or gets a placebo.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of interneurons in the nervous system?

    <p>To connect sensory and motor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the Hawthorne effect describe in psychological research?

    <p>Alterations in participant behavior when aware of being studied</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the role of the iris in the eye?

    <p>Regulates the size of the pupil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of sleep is most likely to involve sleepwalking?

    <p>NREM-3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the concept of sensory adaptation affect perception?

    <p>It diminishes responsiveness after prolonged stimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle states that the absolute threshold can be influenced by external factors?

    <p>Signal Detection Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of rods in the human eye?

    <p>Provide peripheral vision in low light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth perception cue involves two eyes converging as an object gets closer?

    <p>Binocular depth cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process explains the perception of incomplete forms as complete?

    <p>Closure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about the opponent-process theory?

    <p>It focuses on the roles of red-green and blue-yellow pairings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by the inability to fall or stay asleep?

    <p>Insomnia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does GABA function in the nervous system?

    <p>Inhibits neural firing and is involved in memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of phototransduction in the retina?

    <p>To convert light energy into neural impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'color constancy' refer to in perception?

    <p>The ability to perceive colors consistently under various lighting conditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hearing loss is characterized by damage to the cochlea or hair cells?

    <p>Sensorineural hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Weber's law influence our perception of stimuli?

    <p>It suggests that the difference threshold changes in relation to the original stimulus intensity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement about dopamine is accurate?

    <p>Dopamine influences emotions and is located in pleasure centers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of operant conditioning is determined by whether a behavior is reinforced or punished?

    <p>The consequence of the behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the stimulation of the ventromedial hypothalamus have on appetite?

    <p>It makes one feel full.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Pavlov's experiment, what does the bell represent after conditioning?

    <p>Conditioned stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of brain imaging technique provides real-time measurements of brain activity?

    <p>EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory proposes that the perceived pitch of sound is related to the frequency of neural impulses?

    <p>Frequency theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes split-brain patients in neurological studies?

    <p>They have undergone severing of the corpus callosum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological phenomenon does taste aversion illustrate in classical conditioning?

    <p>Conditioned response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is directly linked to the perception of pain?

    <p>Substance P</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does neuroplasticity enable the nervous system to do?

    <p>Change, adapt, and rewire based on environmental input.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes synesthesia?

    <p>The involuntary association of one sensory experience with another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do agonists affect neurotransmitter action?

    <p>They bind and produce effects mimicking neurotransmitters.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which role does the reticular formation play in brain function?

    <p>Responsible for arousal, alertness, and signal transmission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological perspective emphasizes understanding behavior through the examination of bodily structures and biochemical processes?

    <p>Biological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the cognitive approach in psychology?

    <p>How people think, remember, and process information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding human behavior?

    <p>Biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological perspective is primarily concerned with the potential for personal growth and achieving full potential?

    <p>Humanistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the psychodynamic approach, what aspect significantly shapes personality development?

    <p>Unconscious experiences from early childhood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach is characterized by its focus on how perception is organized and interpreted by the mind as a whole?

    <p>Gestalt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the role of the placebo effect in experimental research?

    <p>It describes a response to treatment based on the recipient's expectations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes correlational research from experimental research?

    <p>It studies relationships without manipulating any variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of an Institutional Review Board (IRB) in psychological research?

    <p>To review and approve research proposals involving human participants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following methods is typically used in longitudinal studies?

    <p>Observing changes in the same individuals over several time periods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a confounding variable in the context of experimental research?

    <p>A variable that systematically affects the dependent variable and complicates results</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does random sampling improve the validity of research findings?

    <p>By reducing bias and better representing the overall population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with enabling muscle memory and action, and is known to deteriorate in individuals with Alzheimer's disease?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of excess glutamate in the brain?

    <p>Seizures and overstimulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'tolerance' refer to in the context of drug use?

    <p>The body becoming less responsive to a drug over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the brain's structure, what is the function of the corpus callosum?

    <p>Connects the two hemispheres of the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the reticular formation?

    <p>Influences alertness and arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region of the brain is primarily involved in the processing of declarative memories for long-term storage?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the effects of an antagonist drug in relation to neurotransmitter action?

    <p>Binds to receptors without triggering an action potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is responsible for processing auditory stimuli?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the medulla within the brainstem?

    <p>Regulates heartbeat and breathing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of sleep is primarily associated with night terrors and sleepwalking?

    <p>NREM-3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the absolute threshold refer to in sensation?

    <p>The minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes Weber's law?

    <p>The difference threshold is a constant factor of the original stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What principle explains how we perceive incomplete shapes as complete?

    <p>Closure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the process of transduction refer to in sensory perception?

    <p>The transformation of sensory stimulus into neural impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of depth perception, what does 'retinal disparity' involve?

    <p>The difference between images presented to each eye</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of depth cue is described by the perception that distant parallel lines converge?

    <p>Linear perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes night terrors?

    <p>They occur more frequently in children and are not remembered</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the process of simultaneously processing multiple aspects of visual stimuli?

    <p>Parallel processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory?

    <p>It posits that combinations of red, green, and blue light detection result in various colors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main principle behind the frequency theory of pitch perception?

    <p>The speed of neural impulses determines the perception of different pitches.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, what does spontaneous recovery represent?

    <p>The sudden reappearance of a conditioned response after a pause.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of acquisition in the context of classical conditioning?

    <p>It signifies the measurable change indicating an association between the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hearing loss is characterized by damage to the inner ear structures?

    <p>Sensorineural hearing loss resulting from damage to the auditory nerve.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines taste aversion in the context of classical conditioning?

    <p>A strong aversion to food that is paired with illness, often resisting extinction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does sensory interaction affect the perception of taste?

    <p>It indicates that olfaction can significantly enhance or alter the perception of taste.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach emphasizes that behavior is best understood through visible actions and measurable outcomes?

    <p>Behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What underlying concept distinguishes the evolutionary approach from other psychological perspectives?

    <p>Natural selection shaping behaviors for reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which psychological approach is the primary belief that humans are inherently driven to reach their full potential?

    <p>Humanistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach integrates biological, psychological, and social aspects to understand behavior?

    <p>Biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary factor does the psychoanalytic approach emphasize as significant in shaping an individual's personality?

    <p>Unconscious motives and early childhood experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cognitive approach primarily investigates which of the following areas in psychology?

    <p>Mental processes such as memory and problem-solving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates longitudinal studies from cross-sectional studies?

    <p>Longitudinal studies compare different age groups at a single point in time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Random Assignment process in experiments help to reduce?

    <p>The likelihood of obtaining biased conclusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of the placebo effect?

    <p>A tangible variation in the dependent variable with no actual treatment administered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the double-blind procedure enhance the validity of an experiment?

    <p>By preventing both participants and researchers from knowing who receives the treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What critical role do operational definitions play in research?

    <p>They ensure consistency by allowing for accurate replication of studies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ethical guideline emphasizes the necessity of obtaining informed consent from research participants?

    <p>Voluntary participation and the option to withdraw without penalty.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a correlation coefficient of $r = -0.75$ indicate about the relationship between two variables?

    <p>A strong negative relationship exists between the variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of sleep is primarily associated with deep sleep and occurrences such as night terrors?

    <p>NREM-3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the optic nerve in the visual system?

    <p>Sending visual messages to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle states that the smallest amount of difference needed to notice a change in stimulus is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus?

    <p>Weber’s Law</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following monocular depth cues indicates that objects which block others are perceived as being closer?

    <p>Interposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phenomenon where the brain fills in visual gaps, such as in the blind spot of the eye?

    <p>Visual Completion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of receptor cells in the retina is responsible for detecting brightness and performs better in low light conditions?

    <p>Rods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cue of depth perception involves both eyes converging on a close object, creating a larger angle?

    <p>Convergence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following sleep disorders involves uncontrollable daytime sleep attacks?

    <p>Narcolepsy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process of changing a sensory stimulus into an electrical signal that can be understood by the nervous system?

    <p>Transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between sensation and perception?

    <p>Sensation is about stimuli awareness; perception is about organizing stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of GABA in the nervous system?

    <p>Prevents neural firing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter has a strong association with the regulation of mood and is linked to depressive disorders when undersupplied?

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of an antagonist in neurotransmission?

    <p>Blocks neurotransmitter action</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primary function does the thalamus serve in the brain?

    <p>Routes sensory information to higher brain regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for processing and storing long-term declarative memory?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which imaging technique allows researchers to observe brain activity by measuring changes in blood flow?

    <p>fMRI</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does neuroplasticity influence the nervous system?

    <p>It enables adaptation and rewiring based on environmental input.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does an agonist have when interacting with neurotransmitter receptors?

    <p>It mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which function is primarily associated with the cerebellum in the brain?

    <p>Coordination of balance and muscle movements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the distinguishing feature of the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory?

    <p>It proposes that color perception is based on the balance of three cones sensitive to red, green, and blue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What serves as a major difference between conduction and sensorineural hearing loss?

    <p>Conduction hearing loss results from issues with sound transmission, whereas sensorineural loss is due to damage in the inner ear.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes the role of the semicircular canals in the inner ear?

    <p>They contain fluid and sensors that help maintain balance and spatial orientation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon occurs when a previously extinguished conditioned response reappears after a delay?

    <p>Spontaneous recovery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect of perceptual constancy allows an observer to identify an object as the same shape despite changes in its angle of view?

    <p>Shape constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best characterizes the role of olfaction in the experience of taste?

    <p>Olfaction significantly enhances the perception of flavor through scent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the frequency theory explain the perception of pitch in hearing?

    <p>It claims that pitch perception is linked to the speed of neural impulses generated by the basilar membrane.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of condition is taste aversion primarily associated with?

    <p>A strong associative bond formed by associating food with subsequent illness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach emphasizes the interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior?

    <p>Biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of the cognitive psychological approach?

    <p>Thoughts, memory, and language processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which psychological perspective is the belief that the brain organizes visual perceptions as a whole?

    <p>Gestalt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach would most likely study the effects of early childhood experiences on adult behavior?

    <p>Psychoanalytic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the evolutionary perspective primarily focus on in psychology?

    <p>Natural selection and the enhancement of reproductive success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach asserts that personal growth and reaching full potential are central concepts?

    <p>Humanistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary distinction between basic research and applied research?

    <p>Basic research advances knowledge without practical applications.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best describes the role of operational definitions in research?

    <p>They specify the variables to ensure replicability of studies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In correlational research, what implication does a correlation coefficient of r = -0.76 have?

    <p>There is a strong negative relationship between the variables.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of dopamine in the brain?

    <p>Influences movement and emotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of conducting a double-blind procedure in experiments?

    <p>To prevent bias by making sure neither participants nor researchers know who receives the treatment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is specifically involved in processing declarative memory for long-term storage?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an extraneous variable, and how does it impact research outcomes?

    <p>It can systematically vary and potentially confound the results.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ethical guideline is NOT typically emphasized when researchers conduct studies involving human participants?

    <p>Participants should be coerced into participation after a brief overview.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which chemical behavior characterizes an antagonist?

    <p>Blocks neurotransmitter attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does GABA have on neural activity?

    <p>Prevents neural firing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What specifically does the term 'refraction' refer to in the context of neurons?

    <p>The period following neural firing when the neuron cannot fire again.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which imaging technique provides a structural view of the brain using X-ray photographs?

    <p>CT or CAT scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the process of neuroplasticity allow the nervous system to do?

    <p>Change and adapt based on experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the cerebral cortex is primarily responsible for auditory processing?

    <p>Temporal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential consequence of an oversupply of glutamate in the brain?

    <p>Headaches and seizures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the characteristics of split-brain patients?

    <p>Disconnection of nerve fibers between hemispheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon occurs predominantly during NREM-3 sleep stages?

    <p>Sleepwalking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle states that external factors can influence the threshold for detecting stimuli?

    <p>Signal Detection Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of cones in the retina?

    <p>Detect color and fine detail</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which monocular depth cue is illustrated when one object partially blocks the view of another?

    <p>Interposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of processing involves recognizing and interpreting stimuli based on prior knowledge?

    <p>Top-down processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the phenomenon of depth perception?

    <p>Perceiving objects in three dimensions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process called whereby sensory stimuli are converted into electrical signals?

    <p>Transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks typically occurring during the day?

    <p>Narcolepsy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Gestalt principle involves grouping elements that are similar in appearance?

    <p>Similarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the optic nerve in the visual system?

    <p>Sending neural messages from the eye to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of color constancy refer to?

    <p>The ability to perceive colors the same regardless of light source</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the ear is primarily responsible for converting sound waves into neural impulses?

    <p>Cochlea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does spontaneous recovery manifest in the context of classical conditioning?

    <p>It's the sudden return of a conditioned response after extinction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between conduction hearing loss and sensorineural hearing loss?

    <p>Conduction hearing loss is caused by outer ear blockage, while sensorineural is due to inner ear damage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of hair cells in the cochlea?

    <p>They serve as receptors for hearing and balance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of taste perception, which of the following correctly identifies the basic taste types?

    <p>Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Gate-Control theory explain the experience of pain?

    <p>It suggests that pain signals can be blocked or heightened at the spinal cord level.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which best describes the phenomenon of synesthesia?

    <p>A condition where two or more senses are experienced simultaneously.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach primarily focuses on how cultural and environmental factors influence behavior?

    <p>Sociocultural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In psychology, what is emphasized as best understood by examining physiological structures and processes?

    <p>Biological perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach asserts that behavior is shaped largely by unconscious motives and childhood experiences?

    <p>Psychoanalytic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What psychological approach prioritizes observable events rather than internal mental states?

    <p>Behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach explains behavior in terms of natural selection and reproductive success?

    <p>Evolutionary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the core premise of the humanistic approach in psychology?

    <p>Emphasizes personal growth and reaching potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of correlational research in psychology?

    <p>To study the relationship and predictive power between variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements correctly describes random assignment in experimental research?

    <p>It ensures that every participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the key functions of the placebo effect in experimental studies?

    <p>To illustrate the effect of participants’ expectations on their response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of operational definitions in psychological research?

    <p>To provide a specific description of variables that allows for replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of statistical measures, which statement regarding standard deviation is true?

    <p>It quantifies the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ethical guideline emphasizes the necessity of informed consent in psychological research?

    <p>Participants must be fully informed of the risks and benefits before participating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes longitudinal studies from cross-sectional studies?

    <p>Longitudinal studies track the same individuals over an extended period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of an antagonist on neurotransmitter activity?

    <p>It blocks neurotransmitters from attaching to receptors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does dopamine display its behavioral influence in the brain?

    <p>It controls voluntary muscle movement and emotional states.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the limbic system plays a crucial role in processing memories for long-term storage?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of GABA in the brain?

    <p>To inhibit neural firing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant impact does the medulla have on vital bodily functions?

    <p>Manages breathing, heartbeat, and blood pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of neuroplasticity on the nervous system?

    <p>It allows the nervous system to change and adapt based on experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain imaging technique is specifically used to measure brain electrical activity?

    <p>EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common consequence of an undersupply of serotonin?

    <p>Mood disorders, including depression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does ecstasy have on serotonin levels in the brain?

    <p>It increases the release of serotonin and blocks its reuptake.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of sleep is primarily associated with dream experiences and sleep paralysis?

    <p>REM</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of Weber’s law in sensory perception?

    <p>It explains how the difference threshold relates to stimulus intensity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which monocular depth cue would cause a viewer to perceive a distant object as smaller than a closer object of the same size?

    <p>Relative size</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder is characterized by uncontrollable daytime sleep episodes?

    <p>Narcolepsy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle explains the phenomenon where responsiveness of sensory receptors diminishes after prolonged exposure?

    <p>Sensory adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterized by intense emotional reactions and occurs primarily in children during sleep?

    <p>Night terrors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gestalt principle involves perceiving incomplete figures as complete?

    <p>Closure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for converting light energy into neural impulses?

    <p>Retina</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves the brain analyzing different aspects of a visual scene simultaneously?

    <p>Parallel processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which visual cue requires information from both eyes to determine depth?

    <p>Binocular depth cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which colors are perceived according to the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory?

    <p>Perception is based on a combination of red, green, and blue light.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition is characterized by the inability to distinguish between certain colors, often affecting red and green cones?

    <p>Color blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In terms of auditory perception, what does amplitude primarily determine?

    <p>The intensity or loudness of a sound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of hearing loss is associated with damage to the structures of the cochlea?

    <p>Sensorineural hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the ear plays a crucial role in maintaining balance?

    <p>Semicircular canals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept describes the phenomenon where one sense can trigger the perception of another sense?

    <p>Sensory interaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines taste aversion in classical conditioning?

    <p>The pairing of food with a stimulus that can induce illness, regardless of immediate reactions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the Gate-control theory in pain perception?

    <p>Implies spinal cord mechanisms can block or facilitate pain signals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of positive reinforcement in behavior modification?

    <p>To add something pleasant to increase a behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of reinforcement occurs after a specific number of responses?

    <p>Fixed-ratio reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines observational learning in a psychological context?

    <p>Acquiring new skills by watching others perform behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

    <p>Primary reinforcers directly satisfy basic needs, while secondary reinforcers are learned associations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does continuous reinforcement entail in behavior reinforcement?

    <p>Reinforcement provided after every instance of a behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do hair cells play in the inner ear?

    <p>Sense receptors for hearing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In classical conditioning, what refers to a stimulus that does not trigger any response initially?

    <p>Neutral stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of color blindness primarily affects the ability to see red and green hues?

    <p>Red-green color blindness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the perception of an object's color remaining consistent under different lighting conditions?

    <p>Color constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for taste aversion to develop?

    <p>Pairing of food with an unpleasant illness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the semicircular canals in the inner ear?

    <p>Help with balance and spatial orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle states that the perception of different pitches is related to the speed of neural impulses?

    <p>Frequency theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning?

    <p>The immediate reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of hearing loss is caused by damage to the cochlea or hair cells in the inner ear?

    <p>Sensorineural hearing loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of operant conditioning occurs when a behavior is followed by a consequence that increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated?

    <p>Positive reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the NREM-3 stage of sleep?

    <p>Deep sleep with night terrors and sleepwalking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which sleep disorder involves difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep?

    <p>Insomnia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle relates to the smallest detectable difference between two stimuli?

    <p>Difference threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the process where sensory stimuli are converted into electrical signals?

    <p>Transduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Gestalt principle of proximity refer to?

    <p>Interpreting objects that are close together as related</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which monocular depth cue is indicated when one object obstructs the view of another?

    <p>Interposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cornea in the eye?

    <p>Protects the outer layer of the eye</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during the REM stage of sleep?

    <p>Intense dreaming and sympathetic nervous system activation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of rods in the retina?

    <p>Detecting brightness and peripheral vision in low light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect does Weber's law address?

    <p>The percentage change required to notice a difference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the amygdala in the limbic system?

    <p>Fear and fight-or-flight response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by the term visual acuity?

    <p>The clarity or sharpness of vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which depth perception cue uses the rotation of the eyes to determine how close an object is?

    <p>Convergence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for enabling muscle action, learning, and memory?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during sensory adaptation?

    <p>Decreased responsiveness after prolonged exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does an antagonist have on neurotransmitter action?

    <p>Blocks neurotransmitters from attaching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes the function of GABA in the nervous system?

    <p>Inhibitory neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the eye is responsible for sending visual messages to the brain?

    <p>Optic nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is involved in higher-level thinking such as problem-solving and planning?

    <p>Frontal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which imaging tool primarily detects brain electrical activity through sensors placed on the skull?

    <p>EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurotransmitter's excess is linked to schizophrenia?

    <p>Dopamine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of drug classification, what is a common effect of stimulants?

    <p>Increased alertness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key role of the hippocampus in memory?

    <p>Processing declarative memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term neuroplasticity refer to?

    <p>The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which structure in the brain connects the two hemispheres?

    <p>Corpus callosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of serotonin in the brain?

    <p>Regulation of hunger and sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the circadian rhythm?

    <p>The 24-hour cycle of wake and sleep</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which drug is classified as a depressant and is linked to addiction through its continuous use?

    <p>Alcohol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory is characterized by the retention of learned skills and classically conditioned associations?

    <p>Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which memory effect describes the tendency to recall the first and last items of a list best?

    <p>Serial position effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the testing effect illustrate about the process of taking tests?

    <p>It enhances memory retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of memory interference occurs when old information disrupts the recall of new information?

    <p>Proactive interference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of memory does one recall personal experiences and events?

    <p>Episodic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is defined as a vivid, enduring memory of a significant emotional event?

    <p>Flashbulb memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive process involves estimating the likelihood of events based on how readily they come to mind?

    <p>Availability heuristic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of test is designed to measure a person's current knowledge and mastery of a subject?

    <p>Achievement test</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phenomenon describes the tendency to recall memories that align with one's current mood?

    <p>Mood congruent memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence?

    <p>Fluid intelligence is the ability to reason abstractly, while crystallized intelligence is the accumulated knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research focuses on solving real-world problems?

    <p>Applied research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately defines a correlational study?

    <p>Examining the relationship between variables and their predictive power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the control group in an experiment?

    <p>To not receive the treatment or receive a placebo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an important aspect of random sampling in research?

    <p>It guarantees that the sample will represent the population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an operational definition in the context of research?

    <p>A clear description of a variable for the purpose of replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of neuron function, what is the primary role of the axon?

    <p>Carrying electrical messages away from the cell body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'synapse' refer to in neuroscience?

    <p>The gap between two neurons where neurotransmitters are released</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statistical measure represents the most frequently occurring score in a data set?

    <p>Mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a longitudinal study in psychological research?

    <p>Studying the same individuals over an extended period of time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one ethical guideline researchers must follow regarding human participants?

    <p>Informed consent must be obtained before participation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a correlation coefficient of r = -0.86 indicate about a relationship between two variables?

    <p>A strong negative relationship</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of an interneuron within the nervous system?

    <p>To connect sensory neurons with motor neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the role of the myelin sheath in neural transmission?

    <p>Increasing the speed of electrical impulse travel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach emphasizes the importance of the unconscious in shaping personality?

    <p>Psychoanalytic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the biological perspective in psychology primarily investigate?

    <p>Physiological bases of behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which psychological approach would most likely study how cultural background influences behavior?

    <p>Sociocultural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental characteristic of the cognitive perspective in psychology?

    <p>Study of thoughts and memory processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach integrates elements of biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding behavior?

    <p>Biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Scientific Foundations of Psychology

    • Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behavior.
    • Behavior encompasses anything an organism does.

    Contemporary Psychological Approaches

    • Behavioral: Focuses on observable events, learning.
    • Gestalt: Studies perception as a whole, organized by the mind.
    • Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic: Emphasizes unconscious thoughts and early childhood experiences.
    • Humanistic: Highlights human potential for growth.
    • Evolutionary: Focuses on natural selection and reproductive success.
    • Biological/Neuroscience: Examines physiological bases of behavior, bodily structures.
    • Cognitive: Studies thoughts, memory, language, and problem-solving.
    • Biopsychosocial: Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors.
    • Sociocultural: Examines the influence of culture and environment.

    Research Methods

    • Basic Research: Seeks to expand knowledge without immediate practical application.
    • Applied Research: Focuses on solving practical problems.
    • Psychometrics: Assigns numbers to psychological phenomena.
    • Case Studies: In-depth investigation of one or a few individuals.
    • Naturalistic Observation: Observing behaviors in natural settings.
    • Surveys: Collect data from a selected group of participants.
    • Correlational Research: Studies relationships between variables.
    • Experimental Research: Manipulates variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
      • Independent Variable: Manipulated factor.
      • Dependent Variable: Measured outcome.
      • Operational Definitions: Precise descriptions of variables.
      • Extraneous Variables: Unsystematic variables that can influence the outcome.
      • Confounding Variables: Systematic changes in a variable influencing measured results
    • Cross-Sectional Studies: Comparing different age groups at a single point.
    • Longitudinal Studies: Tracking the same individuals over time.

    Experimental Method Details

    • Hypothesis: Predicted outcome of an experiment.
    • Replication: Repeating the experiment to confirm results.
    • Representative vs Random Sample: Participant selection, crucial for generalizability.
    • Population: Whole group of interest in a study
    • **Random sampling: random selection of participants from a population
    • Correlation Coefficient: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between variables.

    Descriptive Statistics

    • Mean: Average of scores.
    • Median: Midpoint of scores.
    • Mode: Most frequent score.
    • Range: Difference between highest and lowest scores.
    • Standard Deviation: Measures the dispersion of scores around the mean.

    Ethical Considerations in Research

    • APA Ethical Guidelines: Guidelines for human and animal research.
      • Informed Consent: Participants must be informed about the study.
      • Debriefing: Providing information about the study after its completion.
    • IRB: Institutional Review Boards review research proposals to ensure ethical standards.
    • Animal Research: Ethical treatment of animals, IACUC oversees this.

    Biological Bases of Behavior

    • Neurons: Cells of the nervous system.
      • Dendrites: Receive information.
      • Cell Body: Contains the nucleus.
      • Axon: Transmits electrical impulses.
      • Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon.
      • Terminal Branches: Release neurotransmitters.
    • Action Potential: Neural firing.
    • Resting potential: Neuron at rest.
    • Refractory Period: Period after firing when the neuron cannot respond.
    • Synapse: Gap between neurons.

    Neurotransmitters and Their Functions

    • Acetylcholine (ACh): Enables muscle action and learning.

    • Dopamine: Influences movement, emotion, reward.

    • Serotonin: Affects mood, hunger, sleep.

    • Norepinephrine: Increases alertness, arousal.

    • GABA: Inhibitory neurotransmitter.

    • Glutamate: Excitatory neurotransmitter.

    • Endorphins: Regulate pain perception.

    • Substance P: Involved in pain perception.

    • Agonists: Mimic neurotransmitters, increase their effect.

    • Antagonists: Block neurotransmitters, decrease their effect.

    Brain Structures

    • Brainstem: Medulla (breathing, heart), Pons (coordination of movements), Reticular Formation (sleep, arousal); Thalamus(sensory relay station except for smell)
    • Limbic System: Thalamus, amygdala (emotion), hippocampus (memory).
      • Hypothalamus: Regulates appetite and thirst.
    • Cerebellum: Balance and movement coordination and some learning.
    • Cerebral Cortex: Higher-level thinking (frontal lobe - motor function, planning, language; parietal lobe - touch, sensory, spatial; temporal lobe - auditory; occipital lobe - vision).
      • Frontal Lobe: Motor cortex, Broca’s area.
      • Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory cortex,.
      • Temporal Lobe: Auditory cortex, Wernicke’s area
      • Occipital Lobe: Visual cortex

    Brain Imaging Techniques

    • Lesions: Studying behavioral effects of brain damage.
    • EEG: Measuring brain electrical activity.
    • CT/CAT Scan: X-ray images of the brain.
    • PET Scan: Measuring brain activity through glucose metabolism.
    • MRI: Detailed images of brain structure using magnetism.
    • fMRI: Measuring brain activity by detecting blood flow changes.
    • ECG: Electrodes on cerebral cortex

    Drugs and Their Effects

    • Types of Drugs (estimulants, depressants, hallucinogens): Different classifications based on their effects on the brain.
    • Effects: How different drugs affect neural function and cognitive processes. Neurotransmitters and their effects are crucial.
    • Tolerance: Increased amount needed to experience the same effect.
    • Withdrawal: Symptoms after stopping drug use.
    • Addiction: Psychological and/or physiological dependence.

    Consciousness

    • Consciousness: Awareness of self and environment.
    • Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour cycle influencing sleep/wake.
    • Stages of Sleep: NREM (stages 1-3) and REM.

    Sleep Disorders

    • Insomnia: Difficulty sleeping.
    • Narcolepsy: Uncontrollable sleep attacks.
    • Sleep Apnea: Brief interruptions in breathing.
    • Sleepwalking: Occurs most often during NREM-3 stage.
    • Night Terrors: Often involve significant fear and awakenings.

    Sensation and Perception

    • Sensation: Receiving sensory information.
    • Perception: Interpreting sensory information.
      • Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulation to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.
      • Difference Threshold: Minimum difference between two stimuli to be perceived as different.
    • Weber's Law: Difference threshold is proportional to the stimulus intensity.
      • Signal Detection Theory: External factors influence awareness of a stimulus .
      • Sensory Adaptation: Reduced responsiveness to a constant stimulus.
      • Transduction: Sensory information converted into electrical signals.

    Organization and Interpretation of Sensory Information

    • Gestalt Principles:
      • Proximity: Grouping nearby objects together.
      • Similarity: Grouping similar objects together.
      • Symmetry: Grouping symmetrical objects together.
      • Closure: Filling in gaps in incomplete forms.
      • Continuity: Perceiving a continuous form, even if disconnected.
      • Connectedness: Grouping connected objects together.
      • Figure-ground: Identifying the figure from the background .
    • Depth Perception: Perceiving 3D space and distances.
      • Binocular Cues: Using both eyes to judge depth.
      • Convergence: Eyes moving inward for near objects .
      • Retinal Disparity: Differences in images seen by each eye
      • Monocular Cues: Using one eye to perceive depth. (Relative size, Interposition, Relative height, Relative motion, Linear perspective)

    Eye Structures and Functions

    • Cornea: Protective outer layer.
    • Iris: Muscle controlling pupil size.
    • Pupil: Opening for light.
    • Lens: Focuses light on retina.
    • Optic Nerve: Carries signals to the brain.
    • Retina: Contains receptor cells (rods & cones).
      • Rods: Detect light and shadow.
      • Cones: Detect color.
      • Blind Spot: No receptor cells where optic nerve leaves eye.
      • Fovea: Center of retina, high concentration of cones.

    How Eyes See Color

    • Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory: Three types of cones detect red, green, and blue.
    • Opponent-Process Theory: Colors are processed in opponent pairs (red-green, blue-yellow).

    Ear Structures and Functions

    • Outer Ear: Pinna, auditory canal.
    • Middle Ear: Hammer, anvil, stirrup.
    • Inner Ear: Cochlea, semicircular canals.
    • Hair Cells in Cochlea: Convert sound waves to nerve impulses.

    How Ears Hear

    • Acoustical Transduction: Converting sound to neural impulses.
      • Frequency: Determines pitch (high/low).
      • Amplitude: Determines loudness.

    Other Sensory Systems (Touch, Pain, Kinesthesia, Vestibular)

    • Touch: Various receptors for pressure, temperature, and pain.
    • Pain: Psychological interpretation of touch.
    • Phantom Limb: Pain and sensation in a lost limb.
    • Gate-Control Theory: Spinal cord gates modulate pain signals.
    • Kinesthesis: Body position and movement.
    • Vestibular Sense: Balance, equilibrium.

    Learning

    • Learning: Acquiring new behaviors and knowledge.

    • Classical Conditioning (Pavlov): Associating stimuli with involuntary responses.

      • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus with no initial response.
      • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus causing an automatic response.
      • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Automatic response to UCS.
      • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Stimulus initially neutral, but with pairing with UCS becomes associated.
      • Conditioned Response (CR): a learned response to a CS.
        • Acquisition, Extinction, Spontaneous Recovery, Generalization, Discrimination: Key aspects of classical conditioning processes.

    • Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences of behaviors.

    • Positive/Negative Reinforcement, Punishment: Methods to increase or decrease behaviors. - Primary vs Secondary Reinforcers, reinforcement schedules (Continuous reinforcement, Partial reinforcement schedules [Fixed/Variable Ratio/Interval]): Types of reinforcement.

    • Observational Learning (Bandura): Learning by observing others.

    • Latent Learning: Learning that occurs, but isn't immediately demonstrated.

    • Cognitive Map and Models: ways to represent experiences.

    Memory

    • Memory Processes: Encoding, storage, retrieval.

    • Memory Measurement: Recall, recognition, relearning.

    • Types of Memory: Sensory memory (echoic, iconic), short-term memory, long-term memory (explicit [semantic, episodic], implicit [procedural]),

    • Encoding Strategies: Shallow processing vs deep processing; Mnemonics and other memory aids.

    • Memory Interference: Proactive/retroactive interference.

    • Other Memory Concepts: Flashbulb memories, mood-congruent memory.

    Thinking and Problem Solving

    • Cognition: Basic Mental Processes.

    • Parallel Processing: Processing information simultaneously.

    • Problem Solving: Approaches.

      • Algorithm and heuristic: Problem solving approaches - Algorithm = step-by-step procedure that guarantees solution, can be time consuming. Heuristic = simple thinking strategy to make judgments quickly, efficient.
      • Representative heuristic, availability heuristic.

    • Creativity: Divergent vs Convergent thinking.

    Intelligence and Achievement

    • Intelligence: General mental ability.
    • Achievement Tests, Aptitude Tests
    • IQ Calculation: Mental age divided by chronological age, multiplied by 100.
    • Test Reliability and Validity: Important concepts in psychological testing.
    • Types of intelligence: Crystallized and Fluid.

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    Description

    This quiz explores the scientific foundations and various contemporary approaches within psychology. It covers essential concepts such as behavioral, cognitive, and psychodynamic theories, as well as research methods used in the field. Test your knowledge on how these approaches shape our understanding of mind and behavior.

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