Psychology: Goals, Steps and Research Paradigms

• Psychology studies experiences, behaviors, and mental processes
• Methods used include observation, experimental, correlational research, survey, psychological testing, and case study

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

• Description: Accurately portraying a behavior or phenomenon
• Prediction: Forecasting behavior based on relationships with other factors
• Explanation: Identifying the causes or determinants of behavior
• Control: Influencing behavior by manipulating its antecedent conditions
• Application: Using knowledge to bring about positive changes in people's lives

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

• Conceptualizing a Problem: Selecting and focusing the research question
• Collecting Data: Deciding on participants, methods, tools, and procedure
• Drawing Conclusions: Analyzing data using statistical procedures
• Revising Research Conclusions: Confirming, revising, or stating new hypotheses

Alternative Paradigms of Research

• Human behavior can be studied using methods from sciences like physics, chemistry, and biology
• Interpretive Approach: Understanding how humans give meaning to events and actions in context

Nature of Psychological Data

• Covert or overt behaviors, subjective experiences, and mental processes are types of data
• Data is tied to the method and theory guiding data collection.

Types of Data

Demographic Information

• Name, age, gender, education, etc. Physical Information
• Ecological conditions, housing, transportation, etc. Physiological Data
• Height, weight, heart rate, brain activity, etc. Psychological Information
• Intelligence, personality, emotions, etc.

Important Methods

• Observation: Watching and recording behavior
• Experimental: Manipulating variables in a controlled setting to establish cause-effect
• Correlational: Examining the relationships between variables
• Survey: Collecting data on opinions, attitudes, and social facts
• Psychological Testing: Assessing individual differences
• Case Study: In-depth study of a particular case

Types of Observation

• Naturalistic: Observing in a real-life setting
• Controlled: Observing in a laboratory setting
• Participant: Becoming part of the group being observed
• Non-participant Observing from a distance

Experimental Method

• Independent Variable: Manipulated by the researcher
• Dependent Variable: Affected by the independent variable
• Experimental Group: Exposed to the independent variable
• Control Group: Not exposed to the independent variable

Control Techniques

• Elimination: Removing extraneous variables
• Constant Conditions: Keeping variables the same
• Matching: Equating relevant variables across groups
• Counter-balancing: Alternating the order of tasks
• Random Assignment: Assigning participants randomly to groups

Field Experiments and Quasi Experiments

• Field Experiment: Conducting experiments in a natural setting
• Quasi Experiment: Selecting rather than manipulating the independent variable

Correlational Research

• Correlation Coefficient is measured from +1.0 to -1.0.
• Positive Correlation: Variables increase or decrease together
• Negative Correlation: One variable increases as the other decreases
• Zero Correlation: No relationship between variables

Survey Research

• Personal Interviews: Face-to-face questioning
• Questionnaires Predetermined set of questions on paper
• Telephone Surveys Questioning over the phone

Psychological Testing

• Objectivity: Consistent results regardless of who administers the test
• Standardization: Uniform procedures for administration and scoring
• Reliability: Consistency of scores
• Validity: Accuracy of measurement, that a test measures what it claims to
• Norms: Average performance standards

Types of Tests

• Verbal
• Non-verbal
• Performance
• Individual
• Group
• Speed
• Power

Case Study

• Emphasizes in-depth analysis of a particular case to provide critical information

Analysis of Data Approaches

• Quantitative: Numerical data analyzed statistically
• Qualitative: Descriptive data analyzed for themes and meaning

Limitations of Psychological Enquiry

• Lack of True Zero Point: Psychological measurements do not start from zero
• Relative Tools: Tests are context-specific Subjective Interpretation: Data interpretation may vary

Ethical Issues

• Voluntary Participation: Freedom to choose to participate
• Informed Consent: Understanding what will happen in the study
• Debriefing: Providing information after the study
• Sharing Results: Informing participants of findings Confidentiality: Protecting privacy

Overview of psychological inquiry focusing on the goals of description, prediction, explanation, control, and application. Details the scientific research methods, including conceptualizing problems, collecting data, and revising conclusions. Covers alternative research paradigms for studying human behavior.