Science and Scientific Research Methods

Science vs. Everyday Knowledge

• Scientific knowledge differs from everyday knowledge through deliberate and careful research practices.
• Everyday knowledge-gathering strategies are prone to weaknesses like lack of careful observation.
• People tend to "overgeneralize," drawing broad conclusions from limited cases.
• Individuals often ignore cases that contradict their pre-existing beliefs, hindering objective understanding.
• Science aims to overcome these weaknesses by encouraging critical thinking.

Science as a Form of Knowing

• Humans have an innate desire to understand the world, utilizing knowledge and strategies to determine truth.
• Science thrives in societies valuing observation and logical reasoning.
• Social theory and research focus on objective reality ("what is") rather than subjective ideals ("what should be").
• Scientists must maintain open-mindedness and consider facts, even if they challenge personal beliefs.
• Personal values and beliefs can lead individuals to dismiss research contradicting their views.

Assumptions Underlying Social Theory and Research

• Social theory and research assume patterns exist in social life.
• Social structure influences the shared experiences of people with similar characteristics (race, class, age, gender).
• Scientific research focuses on generating knowledge about groups, not individuals.
• Scientists use percentages and probabilities, expressing the likelihood of predicted outcomes.
• Sociologists make statements about the approximate percentage of people who will behave in certain ways.
• Predictions are possible through sampling, analyzing a small subset of a population of interest.
• Proper methodology is essential for reliable data collection and conclusions.
• Objectivity is necessary to minimize bias, which stems from researchers' personal values and attitudes.
• Replication, transparency in procedures, and acknowledging limitations enhance research quality.
• Publishing in scientific journals invites scrutiny and improves the integrity of research.

Tools of the Trade: Definitions and Procedures

• Social scientists need a strong command of terms and procedures.

Descriptive and Explanatory Studies

• Descriptive studies aim to describe a subject, whereas explanatory studies seek to explain "why" and "how."

Simple Hypotheses

• A hypothesis is a tentative statement predicting a relationship between variables.
• A simple hypothesis posits a relationship between one independent and one dependent variable.
• Researchers test hypotheses, with the aim of confirming their viability and ruling out other explanations.
• Confirmed hypotheses generate knowledge, contributing to new theories.

Concepts and Variables

• A concept is a formal definition of the subject being studied.
• Variables are observable and measurable units used in statistics.
• Independent variables influence dependent variables.
• Dependent variables are affected by independent variables.

Correlation and Causation

• Correlation indicates an observed association between two variables.
• Establishing causation requires demonstrating that the independent variable precedes the dependent variable and that no other factors influenced the outcome.
• Correlation does not automatically imply causation.

Gathering Data

• Experiments involve manipulation of independent variables to observe effects on dependent variables under controlled conditions, enabling probabilities.

Interviews and Surveys

• Interviews and questionnaires allow researchers to ask standardized questions, allowing comparison across responses and efficient data collection.
• Surveys can describe the characteristics of large numbers efficiently.
• Analyzing selected samples enables researchers to make predictions with confidence.

Sampling

• Sampling allows researchers to make predictions about entire populations by studying only a subset.

Observational or Field Research

• Field research involves researchers observing and participating in the activities of a social group in its natural setting.
• Empirical research generates knowledge through direct experience and observation.

Mapping

• Maps help locate events geographically.
• Spot maps use symbols to show case origins, locations, or exposures.
• Spot maps are useful for showing the geographic distribution of cases to trace causes of infection or exposure.
• Because the maps do not take population size into account, a spot map does not necessarily indicate the risk of contracting a disease.

Conclusion

• Sociologists utilize real-world observation and data analysis to understand social dynamics.
• Application of social research is to promote fairness and justice in societies.

Explore the differences between scientific and everyday knowledge. Understand how science uses careful research to overcome the weaknesses of everyday assumptions. Learn about science as a form of knowing, emphasizing observation and logical reasoning.