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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of neurotransmitters in neural communication?
Which of the following describes how agonists function in the brain?
What role does the corpus callosum play in brain function?
What is neural plasticity?
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What is a disadvantage of relying solely on studies of brain damage to understand brain function?
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What does an r value of $-1$ indicate in a correlational study?
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What characterizes a standardized test?
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What is the main advantage of using surveys in data collection?
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What is an independent variable in an experiment?
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Which of the following is a critical factor in ensuring external validity?
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What describes a confounding variable?
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What is the role of the myelin sheath in neuronal function?
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What does inferential statistics help researchers do?
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What is the primary focus of empirical research in psychology?
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Which statement best describes the concept of multi-causality in psychology?
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How does the cognitive revolution differ from previous psychological approaches?
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What does an operational definition provide in psychological research?
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In the context of psychology, what is meant by the term falsifiability?
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What distinguishes applied psychologists from basic (research) psychologists?
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What does parsimony refer to in psychological theories?
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Which term best describes the debate surrounding nature and nurture in psychology?
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Study Notes
What Makes Something a Science?
- Science is a systematic and empirical approach to understanding the natural world.
- The scientific method involves a series of steps that are used to gather and interpret evidence.
- Six steps of the scientific method include:
- Observation: Noticing a phenomenon or pattern.
- Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.
- Experiment: A controlled procedure designed to test the hypothesis.
- Data Analysis: Examining the results of the experiment and drawing conclusions.
- Conclusion: Determining whether the hypothesis is supported or not.
- Replication: Repeating the experiment to ensure the results are reliable.
Is Psychology a Science?
- Psychology aims to understand human behavior and mental processes through a systematic and empirical approach.
- Psychology utilizes the scientific method to formulate testable hypotheses, conduct research, and analyze data.
- Psychology is considered a science because it relies on empirical evidence and follows the principles of the scientific method.
Psychology and Common Sense
- Common sense can be misleading or incomplete.
- Psychology provides a more systematic and nuanced understanding of human behavior and mental processes.
Predicting Behavior
- Psychology can help us understand factors that influence behavior.
- We can use psychological knowledge to predict behavior in some situations, but not with certainty.
Applied vs. Basic Psychology
- Applied psychologists use psychological knowledge to address real-world problems.
- Examples of applied psychologists include:
- Clinical psychologists who diagnose and treat mental disorders.
- School psychologists who work with students, teachers, and parents.
- Industrial-organizational psychologists who study workplace behavior.
- Basic psychologists conduct research to expand our understanding of fundamental psychological processes.
The Mind-Body Problem
- This philosophical question explores the relationship between the mind and the body/brain.
- René Descartes believed in a mind-body dualism, suggesting the mind and body are separate entities.
- Modern psychology views the mind as a product of brain activity.
- Phineas Gage, a railroad worker who suffered a brain injury, demonstrated the link between brain damage and personality changes.
Nature vs. Nurture
- Nature refers to the role of genetics and biological factors in shaping behavior.
- Nurture emphasizes the influence of environmental experiences on development.
- Modern psychology acknowledges the interplay of both nature and nurture.
Development of Scientific Schools of Psychology
- Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt), focused on identifying the basic elements of consciousness through introspection.
- Functionalism (William James), emphasized the adaptive functions of mental processes.
- Behaviorism (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner), stressed the importance of observable behavior and learning through conditioning.
- Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis. This theory emphasized the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and the influence of emotions on behavior.
The Cognitive Revolution
- This revolution in psychology shifted the focus back to mental processes.
- It utilized cognitive testing to assess mental abilities and processes.
- It drew inspiration from the computer analogy of the mind, viewing it as a system that processes information.
Role of Biology and Neuroscience
- Advances in biology and neuroscience have provided insights into the brain and its role in behavior.
- Modern psychology integrates biological perspectives and techniques to understand human experience.
Role of Evolution
- Evolutionary psychology suggests our minds have evolved to solve adaptive problems.
- Natural selection shapes traits that enhance survival and reproduction.
Role of Culture
- Modern psychology recognizes the influence of culture on behavior and cognition.
- Culture shapes our values, beliefs, and ways of thinking.
Multi-Causality
- Multi-causality means that behavior is rarely caused by a single factor.
- Understanding human behavior requires considering multiple interacting influences.
Parsimony
- Parsimony in science refers to the preference for the simplest explanation that adequately accounts for the evidence.
Falsifiability
- A scientific hypothesis must be falsifiable, meaning it can be potentially disproven by empirical evidence.
- This principle helps ensure that theories are based on rigorous testing and are open to revision.
New Ideas in Science
- New ideas in science typically build upon and refine existing knowledge.
- Strong scientific claims must be supported by converging evidence from multiple sources.
Operational Definitions
- An operational definition specifies the exact procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable.
- Example: Defining "aggression" as the number of times a participant delivers a shock to another person.
Reliability and Validity
- Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A reliable measure produces similar results when repeated.
- Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure. A valid measure actually measures what it is intended to measure.
Methods of Data Collection
- Observation involves systematically watching and recording behavior.
- External validity refers to the generalizability of research findings to other settings and populations.
- Surveys gather data through questionnaires or interviews and can be used to collect information about a wide range of topics.
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Standardized tests are designed to measure a specific construct or trait.
- Standardization involves establishing norms for a test, ensuring it is administered and scored uniformly.
- Common standardized tests include:
- IQ tests assess intelligence
- Achievement tests measure knowledge and skills acquired in a particular domain
- Aptitude tests predict an individual's potential in a specific area
- Neuropsychological tests evaluate cognitive function
Correlations
- A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables.
- The correlation coefficient (r) ranges from -1 to +1.
- -1 indicates a perfect negative correlation (as one variable increases, the other decreases).
- +1 indicates a perfect positive correlation (both variables increase or decrease together).
- 0 indicates no correlation.
- Correlations can help us predict things, but correlation does not equal causation.
- Direction-of-causality problem: It is often difficult to determine which variable causes the other.
- Third-variable problem: A third variable might be responsible for the relationship between the two variables in question.
Experiments
- Experiments allow us to study cause-and-effect relationships.
- Researchers manipulate the independent variable and measure the dependent variable.
- Random assignment involves randomly assigning participants to different conditions of the experiment.
Descriptive Statistics
- Mean is the average of a set of scores.
- Mode is the most frequent score in a distribution.
- Median is the middle score in a distribution when the scores are arranged from lowest to highest.
- Standard deviation is a measure of the variability of scores around the mean.
- Inferential statistics are used to draw conclusions about populations based on sample data.
Confounds, Expectations, and Biases
- Confounding variables are extraneous factors that can influence the results of an experiment.
- Expectations and biases can also affect results.
- Double-blind experiments help minimize these issues by keeping both the experimenter and participants unaware of the experimental conditions.
Generalizing Results
- Representative samples are similar to the population being studied.
- Biased samples do not accurately reflect the population.
The Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System
- The CNS is the brain and spinal cord. The PNS includes the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.
- The PNS is responsible for transmitting information between the CNS and the rest of the body.
- The PNS is divided into the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary muscle movements, and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary bodily functions (such as breathing, heart rate, digestion).
Types of Neurons
- Sensory neurons carry information from the sense organs to the CNS.
- Motor neurons carry messages from the CNS to the muscles and glands.
- Interneurons are located within the CNS and connect different neurons to each other.
Structure of a Neuron
- Dendrites: Branching fibers that receive signals from other neurons.
- Soma (cell body): The central part of the neuron that contains the nucleus and other organelles.
- Axon: A long, thin fiber that carries signals away from the soma towards other neurons.
- Terminal buttons: Small knobs at the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
The Action Potential
- Action potential: A brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon.
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Myelin sheath: A fatty substance that surrounds and insulates the axon.
- Myelination speeds up the conduction of action potentials.
- Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger that travels across synapses and binds to receptors on the receiving neuron
Excitation and Inhibition
- Excitation makes the receiving neuron more likely to fire an action potential.
- Inhibition makes the receiving neuron less likely to fire.
Drugs, the Brain, and Communication Networks
- Agonists are drugs that mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter. For example: Nicotine mimics acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in muscle contraction and memory.
- Antagonists are drugs that block the effects of a neurotransmitter. For example: Naloxone blocks the effects of opioids.
Neural Plasticity
- Neural plasticity describes the ability of the brain to adapt and change in response to experience.
- Brain connections are constantly being strengthened, weakened, or created and destroyed as we learn and experience the world.
Studying Brain Function
- Brain damage (lesions) can provide information about the functions of specific brain regions. For example: Broca's area and Wernicke's area are involved in language processing.
- Brain stimulation techniques (e.g., electrical stimulation, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)) directly activate or inhibit neural activity.
- Electroencephalography (EEG) measures electrical activity in the brain using electrodes placed on the scalp.
- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) captures brain activity by detecting changes in blood flow.
The PNS and Brain Functions
- The PNS connects the CNS to the rest of the body, allowing the brain to control and interact with the environment. It also allows the brain to receive sensory information from the body.
- The brain contains several crucial structures:
- Hindbrain ( medulla, pons, cerebellum): Controls vital functions like breathing, heart rate, balance, and coordination.
- Forebrain ( cerebrum, limbic system, hypothalamus): Controls voluntary movements, emotions, memory, and complex thinking.
- Hippocampus is involved in memory formation.
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Cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the brain which is responsible for higher cognitive functions. It is divided into four lobes:
- Frontal lobe (planning, decision-making, language, motor control)
- Parietal lobe (touch, temperature, pain, spatial awareness)
- Temporal lobe (hearing, memory)
- Occipital lobe (vision)
Hemispheric Specialization
- The left hemisphere is typically dominant for language and logical reasoning.
- The right hemisphere excels in visual-spatial processing, emotional recognition, and creativity.
- The corpus callosum is a thick band of fibers connecting the two hemispheres.
- Severing the corpus callosum (as in split-brain patients) can lead to disruptions in interhemispheric communication.
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Description
This quiz explores the essential components of what makes something a science, particularly focusing on the scientific method. It also examines psychology's status as a science and its systematic approach to studying human behavior. Test your understanding of these concepts!
