Schools of Thought in Philosophy

• Schools of thought in philosophy, including Idealism, Realism, Pragmatism, Existentialism, Naturalism, and Humanism are explored
• The understanding and interpretation of these schools of thought, their principles, aims of education, curriculum, teaching methods, and the roles of teachers and learners are discussed.

Objectives

• Explain various schools of thought
• Identify basic principles of different schools of thought
• Discuss educational implications of different schools of thought
• Compare and appraise the curriculum of different schools of thought
• Describe different methods of teaching proposed by the schools of thought
• Be aware of the role of the teacher and the student in different schools of thought.

Overview of Schools of Thought

• Education systems have existed since civilization to transmit knowledge across generations
• Different schools of thought, like Idealism, Naturalism, and Pragmatism, propose principles of education and transaction procedures
• Idealism emphasizes 'Ideas' and 'Ideologies', imposing strict discipline and using teacher-centered methods
• Pragmatism values 'changes and progress' and flexible, child-centered curriculum
• Naturalism focuses on 'natural freedom' and curriculum based on learners' needs
• The Idealism school of thought gives importance to ‘Ideas' and ‘Ideologies' and uses teacher-centred methods in curriculum implementation
• Pragmatism gives importance to ‘changes and progress' and believes in a flexible approach to developing a child-centred curriculum
• Naturalism emphasizes on ‘natural freedom' of the learners and curriculum development based on the need and requirement of the learners.

Idealism

• Idealism originated from ‘Ideaism', emphasizing the supremacy of spirituality
• It considers the spiritual or mental world as eternal and universal and the physical world as temporary and false
• Idealism prioritizes the study of the Human mind over natural and scientific facts
• Socrates, Plato, and Indian philosophers like Swami Vivekananda supported this school of thought

Principles of Idealism

• The world has spiritual and material forms
• The spiritual world is more important for understanding the reality of mind and soul
• Ideas are more important than objects for obtaining knowledge of mind and soul
• Plato stated that 'Ideas are of the ultimate cosmic significance and are eternal and unchanging.'
• Humans are considered more important than nature, capable of thinking, imagining, and developing objects
• R.R. Rusk described the cultural environment as a product of man's creative activity
• Belief in spiritual values like truth, beauty, and goodness is paramount, leading to divinity
• Idealism regards education as a moral process, where human nature is spiritual and Godly, manifested through education.

Realism

• Realism originates from the Greek word ‘Res' meaning 'object,' emphasizing object-related thought
• It considers the physical world as real and true, accepting physical objects and events as existing independently
• Aristotle is the father of Realism, believing reality exists independent of the human mind and focusing on physical objects
• Butler defined Realism as 'the common acceptance of the world as it appears to us.'

Principles of Realism

• The phenomenal world is true, with no other world existing
• Senses are gateways of knowledge, providing real knowledge through sense organs
• Realists consider objective regularity in the physical world, emphasizing direct experience through sense organs
• Realism rejects transcendentalism, believing that life exists only in the physical world
• Emphasis is placed on the present and practical life of Man, accepting practical ideals, values, and rules
• Theoretical knowledge lacking practical essence is considered difficult to realize

Aims of Education (Idealism)

• Developing individual abilities to serve society
• Enhancing personality and self-realization
• Achieving spiritual development
• Conserving and transmitting cultural heritage
• Converting innate nature into spiritual nature

Aims of Education (Realism)

• Preparation for practical life
• Leading a happy and successful life
• Adjusting between social and natural life
• Developing a scientific view of life
• Physical development of the individual

Curriculum (Idealism)

• Emphasizes ideas, thoughts, feelings, and values
• Includes Language, Literature, History, Geography, Mathematics, and Science for intellectual development
• Includes Philosophy, Religion, and Ethics for moral development
• Based on eternal values like Satyam, Shivam, and Sunderam, and includes the culture of the human race
• Concerned with holistic development of human beings and humanistic society

Curriculum (Realism)

• Appeals for scientific, standardized, and distinct-discipline based learning
• Prepares learners for daily life needs and basic needs
• Provides options for choosing subjects based on interest, ability, relevance, and usefulness
• Curriculum must have inter-linkages among different areas of studies or subjects
• Includes utilitarian ingredients of daily life
• Teaches natural phenomena in the mother tongue
• Includes vocational subjects to prepare for the world of work
• Emphasizes teaching of the physical world, particularly Science and Mathematics.

Methods of Teaching (Idealism)

• Focuses on the learner's interest and ability
• Utilizes different methods like Question-Answer by Socrates, Discussion by Plato, and Deduction by Aristotle
• Employs play way, debate, and lecture methods
• Depends on the wisdom of teachers
• Involves introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-part logic

Methods of Teaching (Realism)

• Scientific method is advocated, focusing on objective knowledge
• Deduction and Induction methods are prescribed
• Emphasizes self-experience, observation, and experimentation
• Uses models and audio-visual aids when direct experience is impossible
• Focuses on mastery of content and basic skills through demonstration and drilling
• Develops critical and scientific thinking through observation and experimentation

Role of Teachers and Learners (Idealism)

• Teachers hold a high position, facilitating the manifestation of hidden characteristics in learners
• Students remain passive listeners, with central focus on ideals, values, and ideas
• Teachers are more prominent than students.

Role of Teachers and Learners (Realism)

• Teachers are experts who inculcate scientific temperament, attitude, and viewpoint
• They plan and develop curriculum based on learners' interests, aptitude, and individual differences
• They support learners to attain conclusions logically
• Emphasizes joyful, simple, and self-interesting learning methods
• Learners explore society's demand through physiological and intellectual abilities and develop scientific viewpoint

Pragmatism

• Pragmatism accepts only things that can be experienced or observed
• Derived from Charles Sanders Peirce's teaching that thought must construct actions
• Etymologically derived from the Greek word 'pragma,' meaning activity or work done
• 'Pragmatikos' implies practicability or utility
• Contrasting to realists, pragmatists believe reality is continually changing
• Knowledge is gained through experiences and thoughts to problems
• The universe is dynamic and developing, with no absolute and unchanging truth, but what works in the present context
• John Dewey applied this philosophy in his progressive approaches, emphasizing learners adjusting with each other and their environment
• Curriculum must integrate societal or field experiences at all levels
• Pragmatism offers a theory of truth of knowledge and a theory of reality

Principles of Pragmatism:

• Truth is dynamic in nature or it keeps on changing
• It is relational and contextual, formed by the results it gives
• The motive force for truth-seeking is the problems of life
• Pragmatism emphasizes social and democratic values
• A person without social desirable value is unfit for the society
• Truth must be beneficial for the society to be useful and practical

Existentialism

• This school of thought focuses around the individual and his/her existence
• Soren Kierkegaard is considered its founder
• It considers simple human values in special context
• It believes that an individual grows his/her individuality by his/her efforts only
• Emphasis on behavioural problems and specific human situations
• It believes that humanity has faded in light of scientific inventions, and truth is as per the individual's context
• This school of thought emerged as a contradiction to earlier schools of thought, i.e. idealism, naturalism and realism
• Sartre stated ‘Existentialism is the philosophic stand point which gives priority to existence over essence'
• The base of truth is internal experience, so anything beyond experience is non-existing
• It concentrates upon the internal states of mental situations of human beings like happiness, depression and anxiety
• The ultimate truth is self-evolved concept of an individual, showing dynamism to evolve from present and become better for tomorrow or future
• It endeavours to analyze the basic structure of human existence and emphasizes individuals to an awareness of their existence in its essential freedom

Aims of Education (Pragmatism)

• Unlike idealist, pragmatism does not believe in prefixed aim of life
• Here the aim of life keeps changing with the changes in life
• To develop ability in learners to understand social environment, experiences and decide ideals of society
• To be aware of and understand dynamic situations of the surrounding and adapt to it accordingly
• To develop social skills in the learners
• To get holistic satisfaction as satisfaction and happiness to oneself is an important aspect

Aims of Education (Existentialism)

• Development of individuality of the learner: identifying oneself and acknowledging oneself as a human being is a function of education
• Development of ego of the learner: gives him/her courage and an individual feels contended when s/he does a task with self-courage and confidence
• Intellectual development for moral decisions: emphasized freedom for the growth in all the dimensions
• Preparation for struggle of life: preparing an individual for the struggle of life with confidence and accountability is importance for his/her existence

Curriculum (Pragmatism)

• Pragmatic curriculum is based on the principle of utility
• Anything of use for an individual needs to be included or form an integral part in the curriculum
• Curriculum must be based on the interest of learners
• Curriculum must be based on the experiences of learners
• Must integrate the knowledge of all different area of studies or subject areas of studies
• Should focus on solving problems through interdisciplinary approach

Curriculum (Existentialism)

• Does not believe in curriculum in itself
• Objectives and curriculum are developed to fulfill the objectives
• They want learners to realize the free existence of his/her existence
• They want to make them free from religious orthodox, philosophy and God
• They want learners to be what they want to be
• For mental and intellectual development of the learners language and literature are to be included
• Must develop intellectual and decision making skills to be creative
• Includes activities and games

Methods of Teaching (Pragmatism)

• Has two major dimensions: psychological and social
• Psychological aspects pertain to characteristics of the learner like interest, attitude and ability
• Topics must be linked to the present learners' context and also be important and beneficial
• Learners learn from hands on activities and observations, hence activity method is preferred
• Knowledge comes as a unit for the learner to infer or relate, hence unitary method of teaching becomes more effective
• Must connect learners with their surroundings
• Problem solving is also a recommended method of teaching

Methods of Teaching (Existentialism)

• Focus on hands-on activities, problem-solving, experimenting and conducting projects
• Prefer group learning or team learning
• Believe learners should apply their knowledge to real situations as this would prepare them for citizenship, daily living and future careers
• Supports freedom of the learner, which makes Socrates method the best method where both teacher and learner are free to ask questions
• Teachers view the learner as an entity within a social context
• Sartre says true knowledge is something which is learned by the experience and efforts of oneself
• Supports the activity method and experiential learning
• Group teaching is not advocated when individual focus is on learning

Role of Teachers and Learners (Pragmatism)

• A pragmatic teacher does not act as information provider to the learner, but encourages learners to discover the knowledge by themselves
• Teacher acts as a facilitator and guide to the learner
• Teacher creates a learning environment
• Teacher has to be very active and observant towards the learner behaviour and manage them with love and empathy
• The learner needs to be developed according to the needs and demands of the society
• Learner develops his/her personality according to his/her own interest, ability and inclinations

Role of Teachers and Learners (Existentialism):

• An Existentialist teacher first tries to create a conducive learning environment
• The learner develops his/her own way of learning in consonance with their surroundings
• They explore, recreates, reinvents him/herself and realizes his/her existence in the entire process
• The teacher must also have a self-realization of him/herself.

Naturalism

• Naturalism accepts the reality of nature
• Émile Zola was the founder
• It believes that there is nothing beyond nature, where nature is the physical material world and the whole bio-system where life exists
• The nature can be understood as the function of all the events and the materials occurred at any time span
• Naturalism is the school of thought considering nature as the ultimate
• J. S. Ross states Naturalism is the term loosely applied in educational theory to systems of training that are not dependent on schools and books but on the manipulation of the actual life of the educated
• The true knowledge can be attained through senses only
• The basis of truth is our sense experiences
• Every object originates from nature and diminishes in it at last
• Morality, values, soul, God, immortality, prayer-power and freedom of choice are all a myth
• Science has converted the life of the human being in the physical form.

Humanism

• Humanism was founded by Rousseau and Pestalozzi
• They emphasized nature and the basic goodness of human beings
• They believed in understanding through the senses and education as a gradual and leisurely procedure
• Francesco Petrarca is considered as the Father of Humanism
• Man is an end not a mean, free but not a slave
• The learner should be in control of his/her own destiny
• Since the learner should become a fully self-governing person, personal freedom, choice, and responsibility are the focus
• The learner is self-motivated to achieve the highest level of opportunity
• Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism
• Humanist school of thought is based on two basic concepts:
  • The values upheld by a people, affect history i.e. it is up to the person to use the lessons from the history to overcome the problems and conflicts of their own time
  • It gives emphasis on literature because it embodies different values of times immemorial and from this a human takes lessons from the moral decisions taken in the past

Aims of Education (Naturalism)

• Preparing the individual for survival: Survival is a scientific phenomenon where the best ones manage to continue the race of the bests
• Training for adaptation in the environment: Adaptation leads to continuing of the characteristics that are adapted at different natural conditions
• Attainment of higher progress in life: Struggle and adaption are actually for an individual to attain progress in life
• Natural development of individual_and his/her individuality:
• Individual is let free to develop in his/her own way and imbibe values from the surroundings and hence develop his/her individuality
• Working for improvement of the basic instincts and strengths to attain perfection
• Preparing individual for self-conservation and self-satisfaction

Aims of Education (Humanistic)

• Humanistic school of thought is human centered
• Its main objective is to develop or prepare an individual a better human being
• S/he has to be creative and progressive with the humane values
• Physical and Mental Development of an individual: a person has to be physically healthy and mentally stable with logic
• Social and cultural development: continuous social improvement for an individual
• Development of higher level of human values
• Development of productivity
• Development of creativity

Curriculum (Naturalism)

• Has to prepare learners for development and further enhancement of their basic instincts
• Takes care of the interest of the learner, the natural process of development and individual differences
• The subjects suggested to be taught are Physical Sciences, Health Sciences, Mathematics, Life Sciences, Home Science and Languages, Geography, History, Arts and Music

Curriculum (Humanistic)

• Talks about good human being, i.e. one who thinks good for all
• Curriculum must include Health Science and Physical Education
• For the cultural sovereignty, different languages, literature, Arts and Humanities subjects
• For the inclination of high human values, social service
• For development of productivity enhancement of skill oriented subjects
• For the enhancement of creativity, science and technological components are needed

Methods of Teaching (Naturalism)

• Emphasizes upon the individual methods in the place of group methods
• Methods like learning by doing, activity based learning, learning by experience and by play-way are to be used
• Establishes student as a free researcher
• Led to the emergence of observation, play, Heuristic, Dalton Method and Montessori Method

Methods of Teaching (Humanistic)

• Emphasized on the logic and wisdom
• Accepted the inferred knowledge after it has been tested logically
• Question-answer, debate, problem solving and logic are the best methods of learning and teaching

Role of Teachers and Learners (Naturalism)

• Naturalists believe that nature itself is the biggest teacher
• The learner and his/ her natural abilities and characteristic could be developed optimally in the nature only
• This school of thought do not propagates artificial teacher and environment
• Rousseau believed nature to be the tutor of the learner and supports the natural development of the individual
• The teacher supports the learner's facilitation as an anchor which has to be supervisory and sympathetic.

Role of Teachers and Learners (Humanistic)

• The teacher should be a subject expert
• The teacher needs to know the learners
• The teacher must accept and respect the individuality and personality of the learners and work for their overall development
• The teacher needs to be dynamic and progressive as s/he has to restructure the society
• The student needs to accept and respect each other but don't have to blindly follow the teacher
• Both the teacher and student must have humane relationship and learners must learn in an environment that is free from conflict, fear and stress