Scholar Research Process and Methods

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Questions and Answers

What type of sampling involves selecting every nth subject in the population?

  • Convenience sampling
  • Cluster random sampling
  • Stratified random sampling
  • Systematic sampling (correct)

Which sampling method selects subjects based on specific characteristics?

  • Stratified random sampling
  • Convenience sampling
  • Purposive sampling (correct)
  • Simple random sampling

What does increasing the sample size generally do to the margin of error?

  • Decreases the margin of error (correct)
  • Increases the margin of error
  • Keeps the margin of error constant
  • Eliminates the margin of error

Which design involves a group that receives treatment and a group that does not?

<p>Experimental design (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of stratified random sampling?

<p>It divides the population into strata and samples from each. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of experiments in research?

<p>To demonstrate whether a hypothesis is true (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the process of reaching conclusions about a population based on sample data?

<p>Statistical inference (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of sampling is characterized by initial contact with a small group that then provides referrals?

<p>Snowball sampling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a population that has a high degree of variation?

<p>Heterogeneous population (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a confidence interval represent in statistical terms?

<p>The range within which a population parameter is likely to lie (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What principle ensures that research participants are not coerced into taking part in a study?

<p>Voluntary participation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of analysis emphasizes the ways language constitutes social reality?

<p>Discourse analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interview allows for flexibility and is driven by participants' responses?

<p>Unstructured interviews (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What bias occurs when respondents provide answers that they believe are more socially acceptable?

<p>Social desirability bias (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which ethical consideration involves keeping participant information confidential?

<p>Anonymity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of operationalization in research?

<p>To identify empirical indicators for measurement (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the primary research method?

<p>Firsthand observation and study (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major disadvantage of structured interviews?

<p>Limited scope and formal nature (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes dependent variables?

<p>Variables that are measured without manipulation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of variable can be ranked but does not have equal distances between categories?

<p>Ordinal variables (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What ethical principle relates to ensuring participants understand the nature of the research and potential risks?

<p>Informed consent (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does critical discourse analysis focus on regarding language use?

<p>The connection between power and language (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a measure of central tendency refer to?

<p>A single value representing a set of data points (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interviews typically combine elements from both structured and unstructured formats?

<p>Semi-structured interviews (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a representative sample in research?

<p>A sample that reflects the characteristics of the population (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of standard deviation in data analysis?

<p>A measure of how much values spread out from the mean (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a spurious relationship imply in statistical analysis?

<p>The correlation of two variables caused by a third factor (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of statistical studies, what does sampling bias indicate?

<p>A distortion in the representativeness of a sample (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the range of a dataset represent?

<p>The difference between the highest and lowest values (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a crucial aspect of inferential statistics?

<p>To make predictions beyond the given data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one major advantage of using focus groups in research?

<p>They provide fast results at a low cost. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of ethnography?

<p>It involves the researcher immersing in the group over time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does ethnomethodology primarily study?

<p>The unconscious belief systems behind actions and dialogue. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation of using surveys as a research method?

<p>They often produce low validity results. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of claim associated with policy and case analysis?

<p>Correlational claims. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which criterion is used to assess the authenticity of documents in social research?

<p>Genuineness of content. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one drawback of conducting focus groups?

<p>The setting can feel unnatural, affecting participant responses. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does 'reliability' refer to in research?

<p>The consistency of results across multiple trials. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of survey design examines changes over time in the same population?

<p>Trend study. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one method that ethnographers use to understand cultures?

<p>Close field observation of socio-cultural phenomena. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Scientific Method

A logical research approach with explicit procedures, open to scrutiny, and based on shared assumptions and methods.

Primary Research

Research conducted by the researcher directly through firsthand observation and study.

Secondary Research

Research using data collected by others to analyze a topic or form an argument.

Conversation Analysis

The study of unspoken rules guiding social interactions, originating in ethnomethodology.

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Discourse Analysis

Examining how language, including visuals, shapes social reality and its effects.

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Critical Discourse Analysis

An interdisciplinary study of discourse exploring how language reinforces social and political power.

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Voluntary Participation

Ensuring participants are not coerced into participating in a study.

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Informed Consent

Participants must be fully aware of the procedures and potential risks involved in a study.

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Confidentiality

Guaranteeing that information acquired in a study is not shared with anyone outside of the research team.

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Anonymity

Participants remain anonymous throughout the study, even to the researchers.

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Focus Group

A moderated discussion with a small group of people to gather information and insights on a specific topic. Ideal for exploring perspectives, opinions, and reactions.

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Moderator in Focus Groups

The facilitator who guides the discussion, encourages participation, and ensures all members contribute to the conversation.

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Dynamic Interaction in Focus Groups

The interplay between participants, including verbal and nonverbal communication, that creates an engaging and often synergistic effect.

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Advantages of Focus Groups

Rich data, in-depth exploration of topics, assessment of perspectives, non-reactive insights, flexible format, and relatively fast and cost-effective.

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Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Artificial setting, focus on verbal communication, limited control, data analysis challenges, moderator skill requirements, potential group bias, and a restrictive environment.

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Historical Research

Examines past events, individuals, and contexts to understand how things happened and why.

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Policy and Case Analysis

Focuses on understanding current events, individuals, social groups, or processes. Involves analyzing policies and specific cases to draw conclusions.

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Ethnography

A research method where the researcher immerses themselves in a group for an extended period, observing behavior, listening to conversations, and conducting interviews to understand the culture and behavior within that context.

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Ethnomethodology

A method of studying unconscious beliefs and codes that guide our actions and communication. Analyzes everyday interactions and communication patterns to uncover underlying structures.

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Content Analysis

A systematic and detailed examination of a body of material (text, visuals, etc.) to identify themes, patterns, biases, and meanings.

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Operationalization

The process of defining and measuring a concept in a research study by identifying specific, observable indicators.

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Variable

A characteristic or attribute that can vary among individuals or objects in a study.

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Independent Variable

A variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher, and is thought to influence the dependent variable.

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Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured or observed in a study, and is thought to be influenced by the independent variable.

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Nominal Variable

A variable whose categories are distinct and have no inherent order, like gender, ethnicity, or political party.

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Ordinal Variable

A variable whose categories can be ranked, but the distances between categories are not equal.

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Interval/Ratio Variable

A variable whose categories can be ranked and the distances between them are equal.

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Correlation

A relationship between two variables where they tend to change together, but one doesn't necessarily cause the other.

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Causation

A relationship between two variables where one variable directly influences or causes a change in the other.

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Spurious Relationship

Relationship between two variables that appears to be causal, but is in fact caused by a third, hidden factor.

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Sampling Error

The difference between a sample statistic and the actual population parameter. This error arises because a sample is only a subset of the population.

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Simple Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. It's like drawing names out of a hat.

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Stratified Random Sampling

Dividing the population into subgroups based on shared characteristics, then taking a random sample from each subgroup. This ensures representation of all groups.

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Cluster Random Sampling

Dividing the population into clusters, randomly selecting clusters, and then taking a sample from each selected cluster.

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Systematic Sampling

Selecting every nth element from a list of the population, starting from a random point.

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Convenience Sampling

Selecting individuals who are readily available and accessible. This method is often used for quick and easy data collection.

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Purposive Sampling

Selecting individuals based on specific characteristics relevant to the research question. This method is useful for studying specific groups.

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Snowball Sampling

Starting with a small group and then asking them to refer you to other individuals who fit the research criteria.

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Confidence Interval

A range of values that is likely to contain the true population parameter. It represents the uncertainty in our estimate from the sample.

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Sampling Bias

A systematic error in the sampling process that leads to a sample not being representative of the population.

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Study Notes

Scholar Research Process

  • Epistemology/Topic Selection: Foundation of research, determining the subject.
  • Literature Review: Summary of existing research.
  • Theorization: Developing theoretical frameworks.
  • Hypothesis/Questions: Research aims or questions to investigate.
  • Research Design: Outline of the study's structure.
  • Ethics: Guidelines for responsible research.
  • Data Collection and Analysis: Gathering and interpretation of data.
  • Findings and Theorization: Results and their theoretical implications.

Scientific Method

  • Logically reasoned process: Research with a clear structure, open to scrutiny.
  • Consensus on assumptions & procedures: Agreement within the research community for methodology.
  • Popper's hypothetico-deductive framework: Testing hypotheses using deductive reasoning.

Research Types

  • Primary Research: Researcher's original study & observations.
  • Secondary Research: Analysis of others' work for a specific purpose.
  • Conversation Analysis: Study of social interactional rules, rooted in ethnomethodology.
  • Discourse Analysis: Examines language's role in shaping social reality (including images).
  • Critical Discourse Analysis: Interdisciplinary approach connecting language, power, and social structures.

Ethical Research

  • Voluntary Participation: Participants must not be forced.
  • Informed Consent: Full disclosure of procedures and potential risks to participants.
  • Avoiding Harm: Protecting participants from physical and psychological risks.
  • Confidentiality: Protecting participant information.
  • Anonymity: Participants remain anonymous even to researchers.
  • Privacy: Control over personal information.

Types of Interviews

Structured Interviews

  • Definition: Uses a pre-determined schedule (set of questions).
  • Advantages: Reduces bias, increases reliability, validity and credibility, cost-effective.
  • Disadvantages: Less flexible, limited scope, potential for response bias (social desirability).

Semi-Structured Interviews

  • Definition: Guided by a list of questions, but allows for flexibility.
  • Advantages: Balancing structure and flexibility, good reliability and validity, depth and detail.
  • Disadvantages: Potentially lower validity, prone to researcher bias (leading questions), Hawthorne Effect.

Unstructured Interviews

  • Definition: Researcher's flexibility to probe, gather info through open questions.
  • Advantages: Flexibility and validity, less bias. more details and nuances.
  • Disadvantages: Lower generalizability, low reliability, potential for researcher bias. Time consuming, prone to Sampling bias, social desirability bias, Hawthorne effect.

Focus Groups

  • Definition: Small groups of ~7 people discussing specific topic, leading to qualitative data collection.
  • Characteristics: Moderator, guided (or unguided) discussion, synergistic effect.
  • Advantages: Rich data, capturing personal accounts, flexible, fast results.
  • Disadvantages: Less structured than interviews, may rely on verbal responses, complex data analysis.

Other Research Methods

Historical/Policy/Case Study Analysis

  • Historical research: Examines past individuals/events.
  • Policy/case analysis: Examines present individuals/groups/processes.
  • Descriptive claims: Summarizing observed patterns.
  • Interpretive claims: Understanding motivations and meanings.
  • Explanatory claims: Identifying causal relationships.
  • Evaluative and reformist claims: Assessing or promoting change.

Ethnography

  • Definition: Researcher immerses themselves in a group for an extended period.
  • Methods: Observation, interviews, capturing cultural behaviors.

Ethnomethodology

  • Definition: Explore the taken-for-granted rules & codes influencing social interactions & communication (especially in language).
  • Application: Analyzing films, television, media, intercultural communication.

Content Analysis

  • Definition: Systematic examination of a body of material; identifying patterns, themes, biases, & meanings.
  • Types of Material: Written documents, images, photographs, videos, audio.

Access to Information & Privacy in Canada

  • Access to Information Act: Canadian citizens can request government records.
  • Privacy Act: Protects personal info held by the government.

Assessing Documents

  • Authenticity: Verifying the document's legitimacy.
  • Credibility: Assessing its unbiased nature and distortion.
  • Sincerity (and accuracy): Trustworthiness of writer.
  • Meaning: Literal and interpretive understanding.

Problems with Validating Readings

  • Representativeness: Reflects the original data.
  • Survival of relevant documents: Complete historical record.
  • Availability and access: Accessibility of documents.

Surveys

  • Definition: Method to collect structured data from a (large) population.
  • Types: Cross-sectional (one point in time), longitudinal (pattern over time), cohort studies
  • Considerations: Response rate, interviewer effects, respondent bias, questionnaire problems.

Operationalization

  • Definition: Transforming abstract concepts into measurable variables.
  • Steps: Identify empirical indicators & create research instruments.

Variables

  • Definition: Qualities that vary among units of analysis.
  • Categories: Independent (manipulated), Dependent (measured), control variables.
  • Types of variables: Nominal (categories), Ordinal (ranked categories), Interval/Ratio (equal distance between categories).

Correlation vs Causation

  • Correlation:Relationship between variables.
  • Causation: One variable influences another.
  • Spurious Relationship: Correlation resulting from a third variable.

Descriptive Statistics

  • Definition: Summarizing data's basic characteristics.
  • Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, median, mode.
  • Measures of Dispersion: Range, variance, standard deviation.

Diagrams

  • Purpose: Visual representation of data.
  • Types: Bar, pie charts (nominal/ordinal data), Histograms (interval/ratio data).

Sampling

  • Definition: Selecting a subset of a population to study.
  • Types of samples: Probability (simple random), Systematic, Stratified, Multi-stage Cluster samples . Non-probability (convenience, purposive, snowball, quota)
  • Representativeness & Generalizability: Sample mirror's the population.
  • Sample Bias: Misrepresentation due to inadequate sampling techniques or non-response.
  • Sampling Error: Difference between sample and population.
  • Sample Size: Crucial for accuracy.

Experiments

  • Goal: Demonstrate causal relationships.
  • Structure: Experimental and control groups, random assignment, pre-test/post-test.

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