Safe Driving Techniques

Chapter Objectives

• How to select the best path of travel.
• How to establish a safe following distance, given road conditions.
• Managing adequate space margins around your vehicle.
• Effectively manage timing in various traffic conditions.
• How to select the best speed based on traffic, visibility, and road conditions.
• How to determine whether it is safe to pass other vehicles.

Introduction

• Visual information translates into actions that manage space and time to reduce your risk as a driver.
• Proper driving involves gathering reliable driving information, evaluating the information efficiently, and correctly adjusting your speed and position as necessary.
• Techniques for managing space and time, as well as how to select the best speed for the driving conditions are key.

Making Smart Decisions

• Driving requires accurate, timely decision-making.
• Driving decisions are many, varied, continuous, and sometimes complex.
• For every decision you make, you must evaluate the factors in your decision, your options, and possible consequences.
• For every decision you make, you first evaluate your options and consider possible consequences.

Decision Factors

• Driving decisions encompass "what, when, where, and how."
• What time to leave, route to follow, lane to travel in, speed to travel, maneuvers to perform, controls to use and method to communicate intent.
• When and Where to meet other road users, yield the right-of-way, stop, perform maneuvers, signal, change direction/position/speed.
• How Much to accelerate, decelerate or brake, turn the steering wheel, communicate, or combine actions.
• Driving situations can be simple and easy or require critical decisions about speed and path of travel.
• Important driving decisions involve how to manage available time and space to minimize risk.

Decision-Making Tips

• To make accurate and timely driving decisions, gather driving/driving conditions information, know the rules, and gain experience in a variety of traffic conditions and driving environments.
• Decide what to do as soon as you identify an object, road condition, or potentially problematic situation.
• Choose the action that involves the least risk and will help to make the situation more manageable
• Consider changing your speed or position to make your vehicle more visible.
• Sounding a warning or combining several actions is another viable option.
• Additional tips for making good decisions:
• Learning from peers' mistakes.
• Being well-rested, in good mental and physical shape.
• Listen to your inner voice of reason, resisting sway from others.
• Prioritize safety, avoid sacrificing it for speed or thrills.

Selecting the Best Path of Travel

• Determine your intended path of travel; the space into which you can safely direct your vehicle with the least risk.
• Select a travel path that offers the lowest possible risk, even if it is not the quickest or most interesting.
• Depending on changing traffic situations, driving conditions and environment, actions and behaviors of other road users, you may need to change your intended path of travel several times.

Factors to Consider

• Lane Markings: Most roads feature marked travel lanes that are 10 to 12 feet wide.
• Use the imaginary path for steering and control.
• Avoid fixing your eyes on any one point or object; keep them active and moving.
• Alternate Path: Identify an alternate path in case your intended path becomes blocked or threatened.
• Common hazards include drivers running red lights, failing to signal intentions, unlawful passing, or darting pedestrians/bicyclists.
• Wild animals may appear suddenly in the road.
• Roadway Conditions: The road impacts a driver's ability to manage risk.
• Items/debris on the roadway present additional concerns.
• Select a path of travel on roadways that are in good condition.
• Off-Road Conditions: When selecting your path of travel, consider roadway/shoulder conditions.
• Be alert to off-road objects that can limit line of sight/options and/or adversely affect vehicle control.
• Steep shoulders and ditches, culverts, utility poles, trees, and signposts increase risk.
• Bridge abutments, structures, and guardrails/curbs and potholes can damage your vehicle and limit its ability to avoid or manage a high-risk situation.
• Traffic Conditions: Fewer vehicles ahead usually means fewer speed adjustments, find the lane with the least traffic
• If there are a lot of vehicles stacked up in the next lane over, watch for vehicles veering into your lane
• Behaviors of Other Drivers: Drivers tend to use expected behaviors to predict other road user actions.
• Some drivers violate those expectations and exhibit erratic and unpredictable behavior.
• Keep plenty of space between you and such drivers, and change your path of travel to keep away from them.

Weighing Your Options

• Selecting a path of travel is a continual process of deciding which options are best as traffic conditions change.
• Depending on the circumstances, even the shoulder of the road can be your best choice.
• Ask these questions when selecting your path of travel:
• Which path offers the best line of sight? (Hills, curves, obstructions, and other vehicles often limit how far you can see. Always position your vehicle so you can best see and be seen.)
• Which path provides the most space to the sides? (Need enough space to minimize risk from intrusions and to provide an escape path.)
• Which path provides the smoothest flow of traffic? (Smoother when all vehicles move at reasonable speeds.)
• Which path provides the best roadway surface? (Rough/slippery road conditions reduce traction and increase the chance of error.)
• What traffic laws apply? (Traffic laws impact choices of best path of travel.)

Lane Position

• When selecting the best path of travel, change the position of your vehicle within a lane.
• There are three lane positions:
• Position 1: Vehicle is centered in the lane.
• Position 2: Vehicle is closer to the left side of the lane.
• Position 3: Vehicle is closer to the right side of the lane.
• For most driving situations, lane position 1 is appropriate.
• Lane position 2 is helpful when a bicyclist or stopped emergency vehicle is on the right shoulder.
• In lane position 2, the vehicle is closer to-but not over or beyond-the left side of the lane.
• Lane position 3 is helpful when a large, oncoming vehicle approaches and when the driver is preparing to turn right.

Managing Space

• Effectively managing space to drive safely and efficiently involves ensuring adequate space margins around your vehicle and taking into account braking distance and speed.
• Involves practicing techniques for minimizing risk that relate to space.

Adequate Space Margins

• Maintain adequate space margin between your vehicle and objects ahead, behind, and to the sides to drive efficiently and reduce the risk of collisions
• Provides time to respond to changing conditions as well as improved lines of sight.
• Drivers with proper space around their vehicles rarely need to suddenly adjust their speed or position.
• The single best thing any driver can give himself or herself is space around the vehicle.
• It is very difficult to crash into anything when you have enough space around your vehicle.
• There must be enough space around your vehicle to effectively manage the distance, time, and line of sight necessary for safe movement at all times.
• You need space to accelerate, brake, and steer, as well as room to allow for mistakes that you and other road users may make.
• Adequate space margins also allow for quick steering and/or a way out of an emergency situation.
• How much space you need depends on the type and width of the vehicle you are driving, your speed, and the types of maneuvers you are performing.
• The size and shape of an optimal space margin varies with weather, road and traffic conditions.

Braking Distance and Speed

• For safety, a vehicle must have a clear path ahead equal to the minimum stopping zone for the speed traveled.
• The table shows stopping distance in feet for various speeds, as well as perception distance, reaction distance, and braking distance.
• Stopping distances are averages for stopping on smooth, dry pavement.
• Perception time and reaction time is 0.5 to 0.75 seconds.
• These distances vary, depending on visual search, attention level, decision-making capabilities, fatigue, effects of drugs and/or alcohol, and weather and road conditions.

Space Margin to the Front: Following Distance

• Following Distance Laws: Many state laws governing following distance necessitate that drivers maintain a "reasonable and prudent" distance ahead.
• The 3- to 4-Second Following Distance Rule: With ideal visibility, dry pavement, and a safe alternate path of travel, a 3- to 4-second following distance, or interval, is the minimum to allow between your vehicle and a similar vehicle ahead of you.
• This interval gives you enough time to stop quickly if it is necessary and safe to do so.
• This interval gives you time to steer into your previously identified alternate path of travel if it is not safe to stop.
• Follow these steps to put the 3- to 4-second following distance rule into practice:

1. Identify a stationary checkpoint ahead.
2. As soon as the rear of the vehicle ahead of you passes the checkpoint, count, "One thousand one, one thousand two, one thousand three," etc.
3. When the front of your vehicle reaches the checkpoint, stop counting. If you reach the checkpoint before you have finished counting 3 to 4 seconds, you are following too closely, allow more space ahead and measure again using another fixed object.

• Following more closely than 3 to 4 seconds behind a similar vehicle ahead of you restricts your line of sight and limits your ability to act evasively.
• New drivers, senior drivers, and drivers who are fatigued or ill should increase their following distance to 4 or more seconds to reduce their risk.
• Leaving more space around your vehicle significantly decreases your risk.
• Higher speeds demand greater following distances.
• The 3- to 4-second following distance rule works for speeds up to 50 mph.
• At speeds higher than 50 mph, you must allow greater following distances.
• It is important to search ahead and identify an alternate path if the path ahead is suddenly blocked.
• If you feel you would not be able to stop before hitting an object because of your speed, adverse weather, or darkness, reduce your speed.

Following Vehicles of Other Sizes

• When following small vehicles, such as motorcycles, increase your following distance to 5 or more seconds
• The same is true when the vehicle ahead of you is large, such as a truck.
• Increased distance gives you a greater margin of safety and a more open line of sight when following a large truck

Space Margin to the Sides

• The space to your vehicle's sides is important to allow for judgment errors and provide an escape path when necessary.
• Whenever possible, avoid driving alongside another vehicle.
• Decelerating slightly and briefly will usually separate you from another vehicle next to you.
• Keep at least one car's width of space to at least one side of your vehicle.

Areas with Reduced Space

• Search for areas of the road where there is less than one car width of safe driving space next to your intended path of travel.
• A road that narrows ahead is an area of reduced space.
• For example, the number of lanes may decrease or the width of a two-lane road may change.

Areas Requiring Extra Caution

• Search and adjust for obstructions such as bridges, poles, sides of hills, and high curbs, which can make road shoulders narrow or unavailable for escape.
• A line of oncoming or parked cars, combined with obstructions, can limit your potential responses so that your only option is to brake.
• Changes to the driving space require you to assess your response options and respond quickly and appropriately.

Space Margin to the Rear

• The space behind you is more difficult for you to control. When a driver follows you too closely ("tailgates"), allow more space ahead and maintain an escape path to a side.
• Encourage a tailgater to pass by slowing gradually and moving to the right side of your lane (lane position 3) or move to the shoulder if it is safe to do so.
• Avoid driving inappropriately slow, signal clearly if you must stop suddenly and move to the road shoulder if necessary to avoid a crash.
• Avoid tapping your brakes when a driver is following too closely behind you due to the risk of rear-end crash or escalating a road rage incident.

Techniques for Minimizing Risk

• Maintaining an adequate space margin, leaving space for hidden hazards, and avoiding pack driving are ways to minimize your risk on the road.
• Maintaining an Adequate Space Margin: Respond to objects and conditions affecting your intended path of travel. Your main concern is objects that could enter or remain in your 4- to 5-second stopping zone and adjust your path of travel, change your speed, or both.
• Important if an object is closing in on you or there is a greater chance of error.
• Leaving Space for Hidden Hazards: Create space for potential hazards you cannot see.
• Provide extra space near driveways and intersections, where shrubbery, landscaping, embankments, and/or buildings limit your line of sight.
• If a left lane is available, move one car width in that direction when you approach an area of reduced visibility on your right.
• If a lane is not available, move over at least one-half car width, or as close to the center of the roadway as possible (Lane Position 2).
• Avoiding Driving in Packs: Even in light to moderate traffic, drivers may travel in "packs," or clusters of vehicles driving close together.
• Drivers in packs usually travel faster and closer together than typical traffic, greatly increasing risk.
• Move into a lane in which vehicles are traveling closest to the speed you wish to drive and establish a safe following distance from the last car in the pack.
• Reduce your speed by 2 mph to 3 mph, and set your cruise control if the road surface is dry.

Managing Time

• Timing is Everything: Proper timing, which may involve adjusting vehicle speed, is key to safe driving.
• The timing of driver actions-both mental and physical-is critical Crashes happen when drivers are not paying attention to the right thing at the right time.
• When an object moves into your 3- to 4-second space zone ahead, you must know whether you should change your speed and, if so, how much to decrease or increase it.
• Driving involves constantly choosing the best time and space, consider best time and place to perform maneuvers.
• Avoid passing vehicles and changing lanes in reduced visibility conditions.
• You should also avoid passing large trucks when there are strong crosswinds.
• Hedges, billboards, and buildings can temporarily block your view of side roads or private drives and dips in the road can hide a small car.
• Timing and Traffic Conditions: Carefully timing your driving maneuvers contributes to smooth traffic conditions.
• Time your tight turn into a narrow side road or driveway so that you avoid meeting another driver at the same moment and at the same place where you are turning.
• Do not pass or change lanes when another vehicle is in your mirror blind zones or you are in theirs.
• Properly timing your turn signals.
• Executing maneuvers in a timely fashion helps you to be a smooth driver and allows other road users adequate time and opportunity to adjust appropriately.
• If you miss a turn, do not inconvenience or endanger other road users because of your mistake.
• When you are busy with a maneuver, avoid any activity that is not part of the maneuver.
• Plan and perform actions when you are not involved in another maneuver.
• Consider your driving priorities, Critical driver control actions, such as managing your speed, space, and path of travel, are top priority.
• Traffic situations and objects that enter your path of travel have your full attention.
• Concentrate on searching for-and mentally processing-information directly related to immediate or potential driving conflicts.

Closing Probability and Movements

• The chance that a vehicle and another road user will move closer together as they move along projected paths of travel is closing probability.
• Closing actions are maneuvers drivers make that increase closing probability.
• You can detect closing actions successfully if you know what to look for, where to look, and when to look.
• Most pedestrians and animals enter your path from the front or side.
• Conflicts with vehicles include the potential for side, frontal, and rear-end collisions.
• Following are five common traffic conflict situations:

1. Oncoming Vehicles: Oncoming vehicles can cross the center line and enter your lane, or pull into your path as you turn or pass another vehicle. Even on freeways, vehicles can cross medians and jump guardrails, resulting in side-angle and head-on collisions.
2. Merging and Exiting Vehicles: Entering, exiting, and merging vehicles typically close in on your travel path at side angles, usually as they are either slowing or accelerating. They may also be changing lanes or merging from a parked position.
3. Cars Ahead of You: Drivers ahead of you traveling in the same direction can suddenly increase your risk by stopping or swerving.
4. Vehicles Behind You: Drivers following too closely behind you can crash into the rear of your vehicle if you stop suddenly.
5. Intersecting Vehicles and Pedestrians: Intersecting traffic can pose a serious threat when drivers dont obey traffic laws, pedestrians, bicyclists, and animals can suddenly dart into your path of travel.

Identifying and Evaluating Closing Actions

• Continuously search for clues to closing actions.
• In each of the five situations, you can identify the actions of other road users that increase their closing probability, such as changing speed/direction/both.
• Stopped vehicles may indicate that the driver is preparing to back up.
• Continually evaluate other road users' potential actions questions to consider:
• Will the oncoming driver suddenly attempt to turn left across your path?
• Will the driver ahead slow gradually, or make a sudden aggressive stop?
• Will a vehicle arrive at an intersection at the same time as me?
• Will a driver behind me be able to stop quickly if I also stop quickly?
• Will a vehicle parked along the road suddenly pull out and move into my path of travel?
• Ask yourself the key question is: How might another road user increase the probability of closing?

Anticipating Errors

• Few crashes occur that do not involve human error.
• Know the types of errors that are common and possible to anticipate them early enough to have adequate time to respond effectively and include:

1. Vision and Perception Errors:

• Driver allows vision to be diverted from the path of travel. -. Driver allows vision to be blocked.
• Driver does not establish eye contact with other road users.
• Driver fails to check rearview mirrors and mirror blind zones.

2. Failing to Yield the Right-of-way:

• Driver does not obey stop or yield signs.
• Driver runs red traffic signals.
• Driver does not yield to the driver on the right side at an intersection.

3. Improperly Adjusting Speed:

• Driver approaches stop or yield signs at too high a speed.
• Driver approaches and enters turns too fast.
• Driver drives through curves at excessive speed.
• Driver does not adjust speed to compensate for reduced visibility, traction, or space.

4. Poorly Judging Distance or Space Requirements:

• Driver follows other vehicles too closely.
• Drivers swings wide or turns too sharply.
• Driver passes or overtakes other vehicles improperly.
• Driver selects improper lane or position when turning.

5. Inadequate or Improper Vehicle Control:

• Driver brakes suddenly or steers too quickly on low-traction surfaces.
• Driver steers through turns poorly.
• Driver uses improper seating position.

6. Improper Signaling:

• Driver fails to signal when turning or changing lanes.
• Driver improperly or inappropriately uses four-way emergency flashers.
• Driver gives a false or misleading signal.
• It is always the driver's responsibility to maintain control of their vehicle.
• People typically do not mysteriously "lose" control of a vehicle; they give up control by making mistakes.
• Driver error plays a significant role in vehicle crashes so personal responsibility is an important factor in reducing your risk while driving.

Separating Multiple Risks

• Timing is important in driving situations that involve multiple hazards at the same time and place.
• You will be side-by-side with two hazards if you do not change speed, slow down, and pass by one hazard at a time.
• Effective timing allows you to manage each hazard separately and to meet a moving object at a place with more space or increased lines of sight.
• Avoid meeting fast-moving vehicles in areas of reduced visibility and space.

Compromising Among Multiple Risks

• Sometimes, two or more objects threaten your travel path at the same time.
• When faced with multiple hazards such as these, compromise and put more space between you and the hazard with the greater risk.
• Your goal is to reduce the risk posed by each hazard and allow more room between your vehicle and the hazard with the most immediate, serious consequences.
• Give the cyclist more room by moving closer to oncoming traffic (lane position 2), if bicyclists are vulnerable road users who can suddenly change position or direction in the presence of oncoming traffic.
• Give bicyclists at least 3 feet of space when you pass them or 4 feet in some states.

Selecting the Best Speed

• Your speed is directly related to your effective management of time and space.
• Higher speeds often create problems related to managing time and space despite translating to reduced travel time.

The Basic Speed Law

• Speed limits posted on black and white regulatory signs apply under ideal driving conditions or clear, dry, and lit, with freely moving traffic.
• The Basic Speed Law requires drivers to factor in visibility, traction, and the volume/speed of nearby traffic, and not to exceed reasonable and prudent speeds.
• Be aware of prevailing conditions and drive accordingly, as well as a clear distance ahead in which to stop if necessary.
• A reasonable and prudent speed for any set of conditions is a speed that gives the driver a safe path of travel and provides time and space to brake and/or steer to a safe alternate path at least 4 to 5 seconds ahead if an emergency develops.
• If you drive too fast for conditions, you will not be able to stay on your intended path of travel or stop in time to avoid crashing
• Traveling too fast for conditions also makes it difficult to predict the actions of other road users.

Adjustments for Driving Conditions

• A change in conditions can necessitate a speed adjustment in line of sight (including field of view), traction, and space

1. Line of Sight and Field of View Changes: The distance ahead that you can see along your projected path of travel in part determines your safe speed

• If your field of view is blocked, like during fog or heavy rain at 200 ft, reduce the speed if 235 to 275 feet is needed to stop.
• If the intersection , driveway and other roadside areas you must search from allow another road user to enter the path of travel.

2. Traction Changes: Inclement weather reduces traction, or the grip of your vehicle's tires on the road surface.

• In these conditions, you need more time and distance to stop or 8 to 10 seconds or more on snow and ice.

3. Space Changes: Identifying an adequate stopping zone is important, and it provides a valuable guide to the reasonable and prudent speed at which you should travel and at highway speeds.

• Speed should be adjusted so the stopping zone is less than the distance ahead you can see.

Information and Speed

• Experiments show that the average person can collect five to seven bits of information in one glance.
• Examples of bits of information include a number, letter, symbol, and signal light flash.
• Several glances may be required to read an overhead sign or a sign along the roadway and then take note of what other road users are doing.
• The human brain takes about a one-half to three-fourths of a second to process information.
• At 55 mph, your vehicle travels approximately 80 feet in 1 second which is about one-fourth the height of the Statue of Liberty.
• Adjust your speed to allow time to complete the maneuver when changing lanes or accelerating across a gap in traffic
• The number and type of traffic elements and their location relative to your path of travel determine whether you must adjust your speed.
• Most of the control actions require about one-half second, whereas high-risk maneuvers performed under stress and within severely limited space take longer.
• There are four executable driving decisions when acting on gathered information:
• Adjusting speed (slowing, stopping, or accelerating).
• Adjusting direction or position.
• Communicating.
• Performing a combination of two or more of the above actions.

Adjusting Speed

• Adjust your speed when there isn't enough room to put more space between you and a nearby risk.
• The closer you must pass by an object, the slower your speed should be.
• Reduce your speed as risk increases, especially when you are behind a slow-moving vehicle.

Adjusting Direction or Position

• Adjust the speed by slowly slightly when a driver will cut into your space to offset any effect on total travel time.
• Retreat from weaving drivers at least 4 to 5 seconds behind vehicles moving erratically-6 seconds behind large vehicles and identify an alternate escape path.

Passing Other Vehicles

• Passing another vehicle or being passed on a two-lane road (i.e., a road with one lane of travel in each direction) is a challenging driving maneuver that is effective when using time and space.
• Accurately evaluate closing probability, anticipate errors, separate multiple risks, and effectively communicate
• Passing is a riskiest maneuver because of the dangers that face you: impatience and judgment errors. Passing requires you to critically and accurately apply time and space rules. Failing to apply these rules results in thousands of head-on crash deaths each year in the United States.

Risk Vs Reward

• The is little or advantage gained by passing another vehicle to exchange places on a roadway and will simply be one vehicle ahead of the other driver by the next set of lights.
• Ask the following three questions when considering passing a vehicle ahead.
• The answer to all three questions must for you to justify passing:

1. Is passing legal?
2. Is passing safe?
3. Is passing worth it?

• Only rarely can a driver answer all three questions with a resounding and intellectually honest YES.

Passing Laws

• You may not pass when:
• Approaching vehicles are too close.
• You face a solid yellow line on your side of the center of the road.
• Signs specifically prohibit passing. For passing to be legal, it must be started and completed within the road area in which passing is permitted.
• Typically, it is illegal to pass on two-lane roads when approaching a hill crest, curve, or intersection.
• Most states also prohibit passing on bridges, tunnels, near railroad crossings, and where traffic is limited to one lane in each direction.
• It is illegal to exceed the speed limit you pass another vehicle.
• If you are traveling at 60 mph and wish to pass a vehicle going 50 mph, you'll need at least 19 seconds to pass the other vehicle.
• Judge this gap to pass only when any vehicle in the oncoming lane is so far away that it appears to be standing still.
• Question 2. Is passing safe? This question is difficult to answer. You must ask yourself questions before you start
• Is the road ahead clear?
• How far away is an approaching vehicle?
• How fast is it approaching?
• Is it possible an oncoming vehicle I cannot see is approaching?
• Can I see far enough ahead?
• How long will it take to pass and return to my lane?
• How far will I need to drive before returning to my lane?
• Can I communicate to the driver I'm passing what I'm doing?
• Is there an intersecting road or driveway that allows road users to enter the road I'm on before I finish passing?
• Am I being passed, or about to be passed?
• Tempting as passing might be, very rarely is it worth it because it is one of the riskiest driving maneuvers, and you likely won't gain much in getting to your destination sooner.

Steps in Passing Another Vehicle

When you do decide to pass another vehicle, follow these steps:

1. Prepare to Pass:

• Position your vehicle approximately 3 seconds behind the vehicle you plan to pass.
• Search ahead for roadside obstacles and areas of reduced space and visibility.
• Search mirrors and for oncoming traffic.
• Be prepared to wait for an adequate, clear distance ahead.
• At 60 mph, you will need at least 19 seconds to pass a vehicle traveling 50 mph.
• Pass only when no oncoming vehicles are visible at all.
• Search mirror with your left turn signal to communicate your intent to pass. Tap the horn or quickly flash headlights to alert drivers what is to be done.
• Do not have another driver planning to pass both vehicles ahead of you.

2. Pass the Vehicle Ahead:

• Accelerate into the oncoming lane while searching the path ahead and having an escape plan.
• To speed up with you and the other car, 10-20 mph faster is necessary without breaking the law, and be conducted entirely is it is permitted.
• Maintain concentration while watching your relative position, in all necessary zones.

3. Return to Your Lane:

• Check mirrors before activation of blinkers, lane changes and maintaining the pace
• You, as the original lane driver, must not make movement until the other car is visible in all sides of their view