Roughages and Concentrates

• Feedstuffs are classified into roughages and concentrates.
• Roughages has two sub groups: succulent and dry feedstuffs.
• Concentrates include energy feeds, protein supplements, and others.

Roughages

• Bulky and coarse plants or plant parts comprise roughages.
• They are high in fiber content but low in total digestible nutrients.
• Roughages are arbitrarily defined as feed with over 18% Crude Fiber (CF) and 60% Total Digestible Nutrients (TDN).

Succulent Roughages

• Characterized by juiciness, freshness, and tenderness, making them appetizing to animals.

Dry Roughages

• Feeds in a dry state that are bulky and low in weight per unit volume.
• They usually contain more than 18% CF and are relatively low in energy.
• Three types: maintenance, non-maintenance and productive type.
• Maintenance type roughage includes non legumes, and cereal crops and their hay, DCP-3-5%.
• Non maintenance type roughage includes straws & stover, with DCP below -3%.
• Productive type roughage includes legumes fodder and their hay, DCP more than 5%.

Concentrates

• Broad classification of feedstuffs that are high in Nitrogen-Free Extract (NFE) and TDN.
• Are low in crude fiber (under 18%).

Energy Feeds

• High in energy and low in fiber (under 18%).
• Generally contain less than 20% protein.

Protein Supplements

• Products that contain more than 20% protein or protein equivalent.

Pasture

• Land where grasses and other plants grow for animals to graze.
• Natural pastureland includes rough and hilly grazing land that contain a large number of species.
• Cultivated pastureland include permanent or temporary areas, contains fewer number of chosen species.
• Nutrient composition is extremely variable, with Crude Protein (CP) ranging from 3% in mature herbage to 30% in young, heavily fertilized grass.
• The Crude Fiber (CF) content is inversely related to CP content and ranges from 20% in young grass to 40% in mature grass.
• Digestibility declines as the plant matures.
• In early stages of growth, moisture content is high, about 75 to 85%, and falls to about 60% as the plant matures.
• Pasture lipid content rarely exceeds 4% of the dry matter.
• Mineral content varies with species, stage of growth, soil type, and amount of fertilizer applied.
• Green herbage is rich in carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, with quantities as high as 55 mg per 100 grams of dry matter in young green crops.
• The nutritive value of temperate grass differs from tropical grass.
• Tropical grasses contain lower protein content compared to temperate grasses.
• Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation and include cowpea, berseem, and lucerne.
• Legumes are superior to grasses in protein and mineral content, particularly calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, and cobalt.
• Grasses are the best and cheapest bulk feed for livestock.
• Native grasses like Bracharia, Anjan, Hariyali, Giant star, and Spear grow under rainfed conditions in natural pastures and grazing areas.
• Under irrigated conditions, grasses like Napier-Bajra hybrids, Guinea grass and Deenanath grass are suitable for cultivation.
• Non-legume forages contain 5-10% crude protein, 0.3-0.5% calcium, and 0.2-0.3% phosphorus.
• Legume forages like Cow pea, Leucern, and Sesbania contain 20-25% crude protein, 1.4-1.6% calcium and 0.1-3% phosphorus on a dry matter basis.
• Cultivated grasses include Bajra Napier, Guinea grass, and Para grass.
• On Dry Matter Basis (DMB), the crude protein content ranges from 6-10% with calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.4%.
• Grass fodders are perennial and must be harvested at recommended intervals.
• The first harvest of Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass, and Para grass is done at 75 days after planting, with subsequent cuttings at 45-day intervals.
• Bajra Napier hybrid yields 400 tonnes/hectare; Guinea grass yields 300 tonnes/hectare; Para grass yields 80-100 tonnes/hectare.
• Cenchrus is suitable for rain-fed areas and yields about 40 tonnes/hectare; intercropping with legumes improves the nutritive value of the harvested fodder.

Nutritional Disorders Associated with Grasses

• Nitrate (NPN) is present in forages and is not toxic to animals itself.
• The toxic effect on ruminants is caused by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the rumen.
• Fertilized plants have higher nitrate levels.
• Grazing herbage with >700 ppm of nitrate N/kg DM is considered toxic by converting to nitrite.
• Nitrite is absorbed into red blood cells and combines with hemoglobin to form brown pigment called methemoglobin, which cannot transport O2.
• It increases animal's heart rate and respiration.
• Blood and tissues take on a blue to chocolate brown tinge, muscle tremors develop, staggering occurs, and the animal eventually suffocates and dies.
• Bloat occurs in grazing land with predominant legumes like lucerne and clover.
• Ruminants generate large volumes of gas during digestion.
• Bloat occurs when eructation of gas is interfered with.
• Natural foaming agents (Saponin) in legumes cause stable foam in the rumen.
• Gas is trapped in small bubbles in foam and the animal cannot belch.
• Pressure builds up causing an obvious swelling on the left side of the body.
• Vegetable oils are effective for preventing and treating pasture bloat.
• Subterranean clover, red clover, and lucerne contain oestrogenic activity.
• Oestrogenic hormones may be produced by pasture legumes, soil-borne fungi on pasture plants, or decomposing organic matter at the base of pasture.
• Phyto-estrogen causes infertility, dystocia, and other reproductive problems.
• Brassica genus includes cabbages, turnips, and cauliflower.
• They contain goitrogenic substance (thiocyanate), which interferes with the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland, leading to goiter.
• Forage brassica can also cause hemolytic anemia in ruminants.

Cultivated Fodder

• Cereal crops cultivated for fodder include sorghum, maize, oats, and bajra.
• On dry matter basis, the crude protein content ranges from 8-12% with calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and phosphorus content of 0.2-0.5%.
• Cereal fodders are annual crops, and should be harvested at 2/3rd or 50% flowering stage (around 45 to 60 days for most crops).
• Intercropping with legumes improves the nutritive value of the harvested fodder.
• Fodder sorghum and maize: 40-45 tonnes per hectare under irrigated conditions.
• Fodder bajra and oats yields 25-30 tonnes per hectare. -One may get 50% of these yields under rainfed conditions
• Berseem, cowpea, lucerne, desmanthus, and stylo are common leguminous crops in India.
• On dry matter basis, they contain from 15-25% crude protein with 1-2% calcium and 0.2-0.4% phosphorus, leading to a wide calcium to phosphorus ratio.
• Legumes yield 75-100 tonnes per hectare, but cowpea yields only 20 tonnes per hectare.
• Legume fodders can produce "bloat" if given in large quantities.
• It is advisable that they should always be given along with some dry fodder (not exceeding a maximum of ⅓ of total green roughages).
• Perennial legume fodders such as Lucerne are harvested at 75 days after sowing and subsequently at 30-day intervals.
• Annual fodders such as Berseem and Cowpea should be harvested at 50% flowering stage and are ready by 50-60 days.
• Intercropping with cereal or grasses increases the total green fodder yield per unit of land, prevents overfeeding of legume alone and bloating in animals.

Silage

• The preserved material produced by controlled fermentation of crop under anaerobic conditions in a structure known as silo.
• Ensilage is the silage making process.
• The main purpose of silage making is to preserve succulent fodders for use at the time of scarcity.
• Silage making involves natural fermentation in anaerobic condition with due care to discourage activities of undesirable bacteria.

Tree Fodders

• Form the staple fodder for small and large ruminants in many parts of our country to enhance animal productivity
• They enhance animal productivity by overcoming seasonal nutritional deficits.
• Trees tolerate varied climatic and environmental conditions, propagate readily, and provide protein and minerals.
• Non-leguminous tree fodders include leaves of neem, banyan, and fig; leguminous tree fodders include leaves of gliricidia, subabool, acacia, sesbania.
• Crude protein content ranges from 7-9% in non-leguminous tree fodders to 19-22% in leguminous tree fodders.
• Calcium content ranges from 1-3% and phosphorus ranges from 0.3-0.5%.
• A major constraint in the use of tree fodders is the presence of anti-nutritional factors.
• In subabool, Mimosine is a toxic non-protein free amino acid otherwise chemically similar to tyrosine.
• Mimosine can cause problems when forage is eaten in large quantities for a long period.
• Mimosine is degraded to Dihydroxypyridone (DHP) in the rumen.
• DHP reaches the thyroid gland and inhibits biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.
• Symptoms include reduced growth, excessive salivation, loss of hair, eroded gums, enlarged thyroid gland, and poor reproductive efficiency.
• Rumen microbes at Australia, that can detoxify mimosine, have been identified.
• Are now being inoculated to livestock of other nations to overcome mimosine toxicity

Roots and Tubers

• Roots are underground parts of plants, e.g., Turnip, beet root, carrot.
• Tubers are thickened stems formed in underground, e.g., potatoes, Cassava, Sweet potatoes.
• Roots contain sucrose, while tubers contain starch or fructan as carbohydrate.
• Feeding livestock with roots and tubers is common in Europe.
• Cassava contains two cyanogenic glycosides, which liberates hydrocyanic acid (HCN).
• HCN poisoning leads to death.

Dry Fodders

• Reducing the moisture content of the green crop to a level low enough (12-14%) to inhibit the action of plant and microbial enzymes is the aim of hay making.
• Harvested crop can be dried either by natural or artificial drying; natural drying is preferred, as it can be done without electricity.

Crop Residues

• The left over portion of the crop after the main crop is harvested for human consumption.
• Crop residues are grouped under headings such as straws, stovers, aerial portions of other crops, and others.
• Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy, and micronutrients.
• They are usually high in cell wall constituents like lignin and silica.
• Their palatability is low, leading to low voluntary intake and digestibility.
• Straws: produced from most cereal crops and some legumes, consists of the stem and leaves of plants after removal of the ripe seeds by threshing.
• They are fibrous, rich in lignin, and of extremely low nutritive value.
• Straw feeding is not recommended for pigs and poultry.
• Paddy straw consists of lignin, about 6-7% dry matter.
• It has an exceptionally high ash content (17% of dry matter) with a high silica level.
• In contrast to other straws, the stems are more digestible than the leaves.
• Straw digestion is limited: strong physical and/or chemical bonds between lignin and the structural polysaccharides (Cellulose and Hemicellulose).
• Cellulose itself has a highly ordered crystalline structure: very strong association with lignin.
• Potent cellulosic enzymes cannot have access to the cellulose unless the bondage between lignin and cellulose is broken.
• Crystalline structure of cellulose is responsible for low digestibility.
• Straws are deficient in minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, and proteins.
• The high silica content of straw is known to depress organic matter digestibility.
• The husks of the pods with leaves and tender stems are remaining as byproducts after harvesting the seeds of pulses.
• Legume straws can be utilized as nutritious cattle feeds.
• Common pulses include Urad, Moong, Moth, and Cow peas.
• They have comparable energy to cereal straws but are a fairly good source of digestible protein.
• Supplementation with energy-rich feeds like cereal grains will be necessary for high milk producing cattle.
• Other straws (cereals) commonly fed to animals are wheat straw, rye straw, and oat straw.
• Stovers consist of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize), sorghum, or soybean plants left in a field after harvest.
• They can be directly grazed by cattle or dried for use as fodder (forage).
• Their nutritive value is similar to straw.
• The sugarcane top is the top portion removed from the highest fully formed node in sugarcane containing green leaves, bundle leaf sheath and immature cane.
• At harvest, sugarcane tops are abundant, but has low nutritive value (4% crude protein and 48% TDN), dries up quickly and so is wasted.
• Ensilage (with one percent urea, molasses, and salt) can preserve sugarcane tops.
• Haulms the stems of peas, beans etc.,
• The aerial portion of groundnut plant (groundnut haulms) and Soybean plant (Soybean haulms) serve as a potential source of fodder for livestock.
• Haulms contain about 15% crude protein and 30% crude fiber and have better nutritive value than stovers.
• Others: A corncob is the left over portion after removal of maize grain, can be used as fibre source in ruminant feeding.
• Bagasse: fibrous residue remaining after sugarcane is crushed.
• Hulls: outer shell of pods and are fibrous in nature with low nutritive value.

Concentrates

Cereal Grains

• (Maize, Barley, Oats, Wheat, Rice, Rye, Millets, Sorghum and Bajra): .
• Rich in starch
• Contain 8-12% of CP with low lysine and methionine, 2-5% fats, less than 0.15% of calcium and relatively higher phosphorus to the extent of 0.3-0.5%.
• Phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytates, which immobilize dietary calcium.
• Rich source of thiamine and vitamin E but deficient in vitamin A and riboflavin except for yellow maize, which is rich in provitamin A.

Nutritive Value

• CP: 8-12%
• TDN: 68-72%
• Fat: 2-5%
• Low in lysine, Methionine
• P in the form of phytates
• Ca; 0.15%; P 0.3 -5.0%

Maize or Corn (Zea maize)

• Has high metabolisable energy value with low fibre content and 8-13% of crude protein.
• The kernel contains two main proteins Zein and Glutelin.
• New variety (Opaque 2, Floury 2) was produced at UK with high methionine and lysine.
• Farm animals are fed with crushed maize.
• Flaked maize decreases the acetic acid to propionic acid proportion in rumen and hence depresses the butterfat content of milk.
• Improperly stored maize having higher moisture content is prone to aspergillusflavus infestation and produce aflatoxin.

Barley (Hordeumvulgare)

• Has high fibre content with 6-14% of crude protein having low lysine and less than 2% of oil content.
• Main concentrate food for fattening pigs in UK.
• The awns of barley should be removed, crimped or coarsely ground before feeding poultry or swine.
• Veriety "Notch 2" developed at UK is rich in lysine.
• Oats (Avena sativa): Has highest crude fibre of 12 - 16% with 7-15% of crude protein.
• Methionine, histidine and tryptophan are deficient but abundant in glutamic acid.
• Cattle and sheep are fed with crushed or bruised oats whereas pigs and poultry are fed with ground oats.

Wheat (Triticumaestivum)

• Contains 6-12% of crude protein.
• The endosperm contains prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture, which is referred as gluten.
• Gluten decides whether the flour is suitable for bread or biscuit making.
• Strong gluten is preferred for bread making since is forms dough, which traps the gasses, produced during yeast fermentation.
• Finely milled wheat is unpalatable to animals because it forms the pasty mass in the mouth and may lead to digestive upset.

Rice (Oryza sativa)

• Has comparable crude protein and energy values like Maize.
• It is widely used for human consumption

Millets

• Cereals having high percent of fibre, produce small grains and are mostly grown in tropics (e.g. Sorghum, Bajra, etc.).

Sorghum/Jowar/Milo (Sorghum vulgare)

• Similar to maize in chemical composition but they have higher protein and low fat than maize.
• Pig and poultry can be fed with cracked grain whereas cattle are fed with ground sorghum.

Bajra/Cumbu (Pennensetumtyphoides)

• Nutritive value is similar to sorghum with 8-12% of crude protein and rich tannin content.
• Seeds are hard so they have to be ground or crushed before feeding to cattle.

Milling Byproducts

Bran

• The outer coarse coat of the grain separated during processing (e.g. rice bran, wheat bran, maize bran).

Rice Bran

• A valuable product with 12-14% of protein and 11-18% oil mostly with unsaturated fatty acids, which makes it become rancid.
• The oil removed rice bran is available as deoiled rice bran in the market for livestock feeding.

Wheat Bran

• Excellent food for horses with more fibre content.
• It is laxative when mashed with warm water but tends to counteract scouring when it was given dry.
• Not commonly fed to pigs and poultry because of the fibrous nature and low digestibility.

Gluten

• A tough substance obtained after the removal of starch from flour.
• Usually not given as a feed to non-ruminants due to poor quality protein, bulkiness, unpalatability.

Middling

• A byproduct from flour milling industry comprising several grades of granular particles of bran, endosperm and germ.
• Middlings contain 15-20% protein and deficient in calcium.

Polishing

• During rice polishing this byproduct accumulates to contain 10-15% protein, 12% fat and 3-4% crude fibre.
• Rich in B-complex and good source of energy. Due to high fat content rancidity may occur

Molasses

• Juice/extract byproduct from selected plant material.
• It is a concentrated water solution of sugars, hemicellulose and minerals.
• There are four varieties of molasses: Cane molasses, Beet molasses, Citrus molasses and Wood molasses.
• Cane molasses is a product of sugar industry, contains 3% CP,10% ash.
• Beet molasses: product during production of beet sugar and 6%CP
• Citrus molasses is bitter in taste with highest protein (14%) and produced when oranges or grapes are processed for juice.
• Wood molasses: product of paper industry, contains2% protein and palatable to cattle.
• Molasses: a good source of energy and an appetizer.
• Reduces dustiness in ration and is very useful as binder in pellet making.
• Can be included up to 15% in cattle ration and up to 5% in poultry ration.
• Quality is indicated in terms of sweetness indicated in Brix unit.
• Cane molasses usually have 80.0 degree Brix unit.
• Animal and Vegetable Fat:

Animal And Vegetable Fat

• Serves to increase energy density in diet.
• A higher level of energy in the ration by increasing cereal grains.
• Higher levels of grain: negative effects on rumen metabolism and are a potential source of energy in the rations.
• Protected fat gained considerable importance for high growth rate in broilers requiring high energy density.
• Fat provides 2.25% more energy than carbohydrate or protein.
• Oil and fat reduces the dustiness in feed.
• Vegetable oils like corn oil, Groundnut oil, sunflower oil and animal fat like lard, tallow are extensively used in livestock / poultry feeding.
• Animal fat: contains saturated as well as unsaturated fatty acids of C20, C22, C24.
• Vegetable fats: contain greater proportion of linoleic acid. Rancidity: a higher level PUFAS : anti oxidants: Butylatedhydroxytoluene (BHT) or Ethoxyquin included in high fat diet.

Protein Supplements

• Obtained from animal, plan or NPN products
• Animal Origin source: Mostly over 47% CP, Mostly over 1.0% Ca, Mostly over 1.5% P, Mostly under 2.5% fibre.
• Plant Origin source: Mostly under 47%CP, Mostly under 1.0% Ca, Mostly under 1.5% P, Mostly over 2.5% fibre.
• Plant Origin Protein Concentrates

Oil Seed Cake/Meal

• Byproducts of oil extraction used for feeding all kinds of livestock. Oil and protein content varies according to the method of processing.

Removal Processes

• Use pressure to force out oil (ghani and expeller).
• Use of an organic solvent to dissolve the oil from the seed.
• Material of higher oil content undergoes modified screw pressing to lower the oil content to a suitable level followed by solvent extraction.
  Material with oil content of less than 35% is suitable for solvent extraction.

Oil Seed Cake/Meal Nutritive Value:

• Protein: low cysteine, methionine and lysine.
• Cannot provide adequate supplementation to the cereal proteins with which they are commonly used.
• They should be used in conjunction with an animal protein when given to simple stomached animal.
• 95% of the nitrogen in oil seeds meals is present as true protein with digestibility of 75-90%.
• Fat: when oil content is high in the oil seed cakes, it makes a significant contribution to the energy content of the diet.
• Depends upon the process employed in extracting oil and its efficiency.
• Digestive disturbances may occur from uncontrolled use of cakes rich in oil.
• Milk or body fat may be soft and carcass quality is lowered when the oil is unsaturated.
• Micronutrients: high phosphorus content tends to aggravate their low calcium content
• Commonly used oil cake are groundnut or peanut oil meal, soybean oil meal, linseed meal, coconut meal, cotton seed meal

Groundnut Cake

• Contains about 45% CP, is deficient in cysteine, methionine and lysine
• Good source of Vitamin B12 and calcium content.
• In rainy season contains mycotoxins (Aflatoxins: Aspergillus flavus).
• There are four Aflatoxins (B1, G1, B2, G2), B1 is most toxic.

Soybean Meal

• Is 44 -46% CP, rich in all EAAS except cysteine, methionine
• Protein inhibitors like Kunitz anti-trypsin and Bowman-Birk chymotrypsin significant.
• Trypsin inhibitors especially interferes the protein digestion in monogastric animals.
• Protein indigestibility affects growth rate, egg production and feed efficiency
• Also may lead to hypertrophy of pancreas and excess endogenous loss of essential amino acids.

Animal protein concentrates

• @15% in the ration to makeup the deficiency in EAAS content.
• They are expensive and animal protein concentrates should be free from.
• Fish meal, Meat meal, Blood meal, Hatchery waste and Milk products

Sun flower cake

• Has a 40% of CP with low lysine and twice the amount of methionine.
• Should be inactivated by proper heat treatment during processing.
• The expeller variety has high content PUFAS
• Can be fed to cattle ration up to 20% level and 10% to poultry ration.
• Is not recommended for calves, lambs, chicks and young pigs.

Cottonseed meal

• Is low content of cysteine, methionine and lysine.
• The calcium : phosphorus is 1:6, so calcium deficiency may
• Lactating cows fed with this meal will milk become hard and firm, butter from such milk fat: difficult to churn.
• Available form as decorticated/ undecorticated oilcake
• Contains 0.3-20g/kg DM: yellow pigment is an antioxidant and polymerization inhibitor. Has been foundtoxic to simple-stomached animals and shows depressed appetite, loss of weight and even lead to death due to cardiac failure.

Fish Meal

• Fishes are dried or ground.
• Cooking fish and pressing to remove water and oil sterilizes fishmeal resulting in a great source of protein.
• High levels lysine, methionine and tryptophan, Ca, and P and is rich in vitamin B complex
• Simple-stomached animals can take to up 10% fish meals.

meat and bone meal

• Rendering is a process that converts animal tissue.
• Product must be free of hooves, horns, bristle, hair and feathers
• Cp : 60-70% useful as lysine supplement.
• Enteric factor from the intestinal tract of swine

Soybean Meal

Antinutritional factors in soybean meal Lectins are proteins capable of binding carbohydrate moieties in

Haemogglutinin (Lectin)

• Binds red blood cells of rats, rabbits and humans

Genistein

• A plant estrogen in soybean

SINGLE CELL PROTEIN(SCP)

• Nowadays, single cell organisms like yeast and bacteria are exploited in various fields.
• They can grow very rapidly and double their cell mass in large-scale fermentors.
• A range of nutrient substrates can be used including cereal grains, sugar beet, sugar cane, and its byproducts, waste products from food manufacture to culture bacteria
• SCP has high levels of nucleic acids of 5-12% DM in yeast and 8-16% DM in bacteria.
• Some of the purine and pyrimidine bases in these acids can be used for nucleic acid biosynthesis.
• Uric acid or allantoins, the end products of nucleic acid catabolism, are excreted in the urine of animals consuming SCP.
• SCP does contain a crude fibre fraction and lacks cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin, it contains glucans, mannans and chitin.
• Dietary SCP for broilers is 2-5% concentration and nearly 10% is recommended for laying hens. NON PROTEIN NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
• NPN is an important source of nitrogen for ruminant animals.
• Its use depends upon the ability of the rumen microbes to use them in the synthesis of their own cellular tissues.

Hatchery waste:

• It is otherwise known as Incubator waste or Hatchery By The total digestible nutrient (TDN) value of poultry litter approximates 50 percent and crude protein averages 21 to 28 percent