Classification of Feedstuffs

Classification of Feedstuffs

• Bulky and course plants or plant parts with a high fiber content and low total digestible nutrients are defined as feed, with over 18% crude fiber and 60% total digestible nutrients.

Roughages

• Succulent roughages are plants characterized by juiciness, freshness, and tenderness, making them appetizing to animals.
• Dry roughages are feeds in a dry state that are bulky and low in weight per unit volume, usually containing more than 18% CF and relatively low in energy.

Types of Roughage

• Maintenance type roughage contains 3-5% DCP, consisting of non-legumes and cereal crops with their hay.
• Non-maintenance type roughage contains < -3% DCP, for example, straws and stover.
• Productive type roughage contains > 5% DCP, for example, legumes fodder and their hay.

Pasture

• It is the land where grasses and other plants grow for animals to graze
• Natural pastureland includes rough and hilly grazing land.
• Cultivated pastureland may be sub-divided into permanent or temporary pastureland depending upon its usage.
• Natural pastureland includes a large number of species, whereas cultivated pastureland contains fewer numbers of chosen species.

Nutrients in Pasture

• The nutrient composition is extremely variable, with CP ranging from 3% in mature herbage to 30% in young heavily fertilized grass.
• The CF content is inversely related to the CP content and ranges from 20% in young grass to 40% in mature grass.
• Digestibility declines as the plant matures.
• Moisture content can be high, about 75 to 85% in early stages of growth, which decreases to about 60% as the plant matures.
• The pasture lipid content rarely exceeds 4% of the dry matter.
• Mineral content varies with species, based on the stage of growth, soil type, and amount of fertilizer applied.
• Green herbage is rich in carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, and quantities as high as 55 mg per 100 grams of dry matter of young green crops.
• Nutritive value of temperate grasses varies, but tropical grasses contain low protein relative to temperate grasses.
• Legumes are capable of nitrogen fixation, examples include cowpea, berseem, and lucerne.
• Legumes are superior to grasses in protein and mineral content, particularly calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, copper, and cobalt.
• Grasses are the best and cheapest bulk feed for livestock.
• Examples of native grasses that grow under rainfed conditions include Bracharia, Anjan, Hariyali, and Giant star.
• Grasses such as Napier-Bajra hybrids, Guinea grass, and Deenanath grass are suitable for cultivation under irrigated conditions.
• Non-legume forages contain 5-10% crude protein ,0.3-0.5% calcium, and 0.2-0.3% phosphorus.
• Legume forages such as Cow pea, Leucern, and Sesbania contain 20-25% crude protein, 1.4-1.6% calcium, and 0.1-3% phosphorus on a dry matter basis.
• Cultivated grasses includes Bajra Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass.
• On DMB, the crude protein content ranges from 6-10% with a calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and a phosphorus content of 0.2-0.4%.
• Grass fodders are perennial and must be harvested at recommended intervals.
• The first harvest of Hybrid Napier, Guinea grass and Para grass is done 75 days post planting, and the subsequent cuttings are done at 45-day intervals.
• Bajra Napier hybrid yields 400 tonnes/ hectare, Guinea grass yields 300 tonnes/hectare, and Para grass yields 80-100 tonnes/hectare.
• Cenchrus is suitable for rain-fed areas and yields about 40 tonnes/hectare which can be coupled with intercropped legumes to improves the nutritive value.

Nutritional Disorders Associated with Grasses

• Nitrate, an NPN present in forages.
• Nitrate itself is not toxic to animals.
• The toxic effect on ruminants is caused by the reduction of nitrate to nitrite in the rumen.
• Fertilized plants have higher nitrate levels.
• Grazing herbage at >700 ppm of nitrate N / kg DM is considered to produce a toxic effect through converting to nitrite.
• Nitrite is absorbed into red blood cells and combines with hemoglobin to form brown pigment called methaemoglobin.
• Methaemoglobin cannot transport O2, increasing the animal's heart rate and respiration where the blood and tissues take on a blue to chocolate brown tinge, the animal develops muscle tremors, staggering, suffocates, and dies.
• Bloat occurs in grazing land with predominant legumes such as lucerne and clover.
• Ruminants carry an active population of microorganisms that generate large volumes of gas during digestion.
• Gas is belched up or passes through the gastrointestinal tract.
• Bloat occurs when eructation of gas is interfered.
• Natural foaming agents (Saponin) in legumes cause a stable foam to form in the rumen.
• Gas is trapped in small bubbles and the animal cannot belch up the gas.
• Pressure builds up in the rumen causing an obvious swelling on the left side of the body.
• Pasture bloat can be prevented by vegetable oils which break down the frothy condition in the rumen contents.
• Subterranean clover, red clover, and Lucerne contain Oestrogenic activity.
• Oestrogenic hormones may be produced by pasture legumes (plant oestrogens or phytoestrogens) or by soil-borne fungi that live on pasture plants or on dead and decomposing organic matter at the base of pasture.
• Phyto-estrogen causes infertility, dystocia, and other reproductive problems.
• Brassica includes cabbages, turnips, and cauliflower.
• Brassica contains goitrogenic substance (thiocyanate), interfering with the uptake of iodine by the thyroid gland leading to goiter.
• Forage brassica also cause haemolytic anaemia in ruminants.
• Cereal crops cultivated for fodder includes sorghum, maize, oats, and bajra.
• The crude protein content of cereal crops cultivated for fodder ranges from 8-12 % on dry matter basis with a calcium content of 0.4-0.6% and a phosphorus content of 0.2-0.5%.
• Cereal fodders are annual crops, and the fodder should be harvested between 45 to 60 days for most of the crops.
• Cutting should be done at the 2/3 or before 50% flowering stage.
• Intercropping with legumes improves the nutritive value.
• Fodder sorghum and fodder maize under irrigated conditions yield about 40-45 tonnes per hectare, while fodder bajra and oats yields 25-30 tonnes per hectare.
• Yields under rainfed conditions are 50% of those from irrigated conditions.
• Common leguminous crops grown in India for fodder includes berseem, cowpea, lucerne, desmanthus, and stylo.
• On dry matter basis, legumes contain 15-25% crude protein with 1-2% calcium and 0.2-0.4% phosphorus, leading to a wide calcium to phosphorus ratio.
• Legumes yield 75-100 tonnes per hectare, but cowpea yields only 20 tonnes per hectare.
• Legume fodders are able to produce "bloat if given in large quantities; thus it is advisable to give them along with some dry fodder.
• Limit legumes to 1/3 of of total green roughages.
• Perennial legume fodders such as Lucerne are harvested 75 days after sowing, and subsequently at 30-day intervals.
• Annual fodders such as Berseem and Cowpea should be harvested at 50% flowering stage and are ready by 50-60 days.
• Intercropping with cereal or grasses increases the total green fodder yield per unit of land and avoids overfeeding legumes that may lead to bloating in animals where CP would measure 15 to 25%.
• Silage is the preserved material that results from the controlled fermentation of crop under anaerobic conditions in a silo.
• Ensilage refers to the silage making process.
• The primary purpose of silage making is to preserve succulent fodders for usage at the time of scarcity.
• Silage making involves natural fermentation in anaerobic condition where care is taken to discourage activities of undesirable bacteria.
• Tree fodders form the staple fodder for small and large ruminants in most parts of the country, enhancing animal productivity by overcoming seasonal nutritional deficits.
• Further, trees can tolerate varied climatic and environmental conditions, propagate readily, and serve as a valuable source of protein and minerals.
• The non-leguminous tree fodders include leaves of neem, banyan, and fig, while leguminous tree fodders include leaves of gliricidia, subabool, acacia, and sesbania.
• Crude protein content ranges from 7-9% in non-leguminous tree fodders to 19-22% in leguminous tree fodders.
• Calcium content ranges from 1-3 % and phosphorus ranges from 0.3-0.5%, but the constraint in the use of tree fodders is the presence of anti-nutritional factors.

Subabool

• In subabool, Mimosine is a toxic non-protein free amino acid chemically similar to tyrosine.
• Mimosine can cause problems when the forage is eaten in large quantities over a long period.
• Mimosine is degraded to Dihydroxypyridone (DHP) in the rumen.
• DHP reaches the thyroid gland, inhibiting the biosynthesis of the hormone thyroxine.
• Symptoms include reduced growth, excessive salivation, loss of hair, eroded gums, an enlarged thyroid gland, and poor reproductive efficiency.
• Rumen microbes at Australia capable of detoxifying mimosine have been identified and inoculated to livestock nations to overcome mimosine toxicity.
• Roots are the underground parts of plants, for example, turnip, beet root and carrot.
• Tubers are thickened stems usually formed underground, for example, potatoes, Cassava, and sweet potatoes.
• Roots contain sucrose, while tubers contain starch or fructan as carbohydrate.
• Feeding livestock roots and tubers are common in Europe, but Cassava is widely fed to livestock in India.
• Cassava contains two cyanogenic glycosides, which releases hydrocyanic acid (HCN).
• HCN poisoning leads to death; however, wilting reduces HCN.
• Reducing the moisture content of the green crop to a level between 12-14% inhibits the action of plant and microbial enzymes and is the goal of hay making.
• Harvested crops can be dried by natural or artificial drying with a preference to natural to prevent incurring expenditure towards electricity.
• Hay can be stored satisfactorily in a stack or bale.
• Crop residues are the leftover portions of crops after the main crop is harvested for human consumption.
• Crop residues are generally low in crude protein, energy, and micronutrients containing high cell wall constituents like lignin and silica, with low palatability, leading to low voluntary intake, low digestibility, and are bulky.
• Straws are produced from most cereal crops and from some legumes where the stem and leaves of plants remain in the removal of the ripe seeds by threshing are fibrous/rich in lignin, with extremely low nutritive value.
• Straw feeding is not recommended for pigs and poultry.
• Paddy straw consists of about 6-7% dry matter lignin, lower than that of other cereal straws with an exceptionally high ash content at 17% and a high silica level where the stems are more digestible than the leaves.
• Straw's value is attributed to straw digestion being limited due to the formation of strong physical and/or chemical bonds between lignin and structural polysaccharides (Cellulose and Hemicellulose).
• Cellulose has a highly ordered crystalline structure and a very strong association with lignin, where even the most potent cellulosic enzymes cannot access the cellulose unless the bondage between lignin and cellulose is broken, causing low digestibility of cellulose and high deficiency in other nutrients.
• High silica content of straw is also known to depress organic matter digestibility.
• It is economical to increase nutritive values via physical, chemical or biological treatment.
• Legume straws: the husks of pods with leaves and tender stems remain as byproducts after harvesting the seeds of pulses where these products can be used as nutritious cattle feeds.
• Urad, Moong, Moth, and Cowpeas are the most common pulse.
• The energy value of legume straws is comparable with those of cereal straws of being a fairly good source of digestible protein.
• Supplementation with energy-rich feeds like cereal grains, are necessary for high milk producing cattle.
• Other straws or cereals that are mostly used include wheat, rye, and oat straws
• Stovers consists of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize), sorghum or soybean plants left in a field after harvest that can be grazed by cattle or dried for use as fodder where its nutritive value is similar to straw.
• Sugarcane tops is the top portion has been removed from the highest fully formed node in sugarcane, including the green leaves, bundle leaf sheath and variable amounts of immature cane.
• Abundant quantities of sugarcane tops are available at the time of sugarcane harvest.
• Sugarcane tops can be used as green fodder but has a low nutritive value of 4% crude protein, dries quickly, and is wasted.
• Ensiling to preserve sugarcane tops is achieved with one percent urea, molasses, and salt.
• The stems of peas and beans are called haulms with the aerial portion of groundnut plant (groundnut haulms) and soybeans serving as a potential source of fodder for livestock, containing 15% crude protein and 30% crude fibre while also having a better nutritive value than stovers.
• A corncob is the leftover that remains after removal of maize grain, which can be used as a fiber source in ruminant feeding Bagasse, a sugarcane-crushed fibrous residue, has very low palatability.
• Hulls are the outer shell of pods with fibrous structure where their nature consists of low nutritive value.

Concentrates: Cereal Grains

• Maize, Barley, Oats, Wheat, Rice, Rye, Millets, Sorghum and Bajra.
• Cereal grains are rich in starch and contain 8-12% CP, low lysine and methionine, 2-5% fats, less than 0.15% calcium, and relatively higher phosphorus to the extent of 0.3-0.5%.
• Phosphorus in cereals is present in the form of phytates, which mobilizes dietary calcium.
• Cereal grains are a rich source of thiamine and vitamin E but deficient in vitamin A and riboflavin, except for yellow maize.
• Nutritive value: ranges from 8 -12% CP, TDN of 68-72%, fat of 2-5%, with low lysine and methionine and phytates, calcium ranging at 0.15% and ,with phosphorus ranging at 0.3 to 5.0%.
• Maize has a high metabolisable energy value with low fiber content and 8-13% crude protein where the maize kernel contains two main protein Zein and Glutelin.
• New varieties with high methionine and lysine ( Opaque 2, Floury 2) was produced in UK with farm animals being fed with crushed maize.
• Flaked maize decreases acetic acid to propionic acid proportion decreasing the butterfat content of milk.
• An aspergillusflavus infestation and produce aflatoxin occurs when improperly stored maize contains excessive moisture .
• Barley has a high fiber content with 6-14% crude protein that has a low lysine content, and a low oil content of <2%.
• Barley is a main concentrate food for fattening pigs in UK if the awns should be removed, crimped, or coarsely ground before feeding poultry or swine.
• The "Notch 2" variety developed at UK is rich in lysine.

Oats

• It has the highest crude fiber of 12-16% and 7-15% crude, which is deficient in methionine, histidine and tryptophan with abundant glutamic acid.
• Cattle and sheep need bruised/crushed, while pigs and poultry ground oats.
• Wheat (6-12% crude protein) with endosperm (prolamin (gliadin) and glutelin (glutenin) protein mixture) decides where the flour is to be used as bread or biscuit.
• Stringent doughs are preferred to trap fermentation gasses whereas mass milled and pasty dough is not digestable by simple digestive systems.
• While comparable protein and energy values to maize, rice is consumed more.

Millet

• It produces small grains with a high fibre in the tropics, as sorghum and bajra.
• Composition: High in protein with low fat, similar to maize, where pigs and poultry are fed crushed/cracked; though cattle get it grounded.
• Though there might be8-112% crude protein, Bajrai is with sorghum with rich tannin content
• It is to be ground to be feed to cattle.

Milling by Products

• The coarse grain coat outer that is separated/processed as ricem wheat and maize bran.
• Rice is a valuable protein source of 12-14% and an oil source ( 11-18%) but it goes rancid.
• This will have to be removed.
• Excellent is the coarse, fibrous wheat for horses/laxation -warm water mixture with a tendency to dry later on) but no so much for swines due to indigestibility.
• It should have removed starch, be tough where ruminants can not benefit from- poor protein, unpalatability-and poor quality.
• A byproduct of the flour grade granules, this midlling has around 15-20% proteins but no calicium.

Polishing

• It is accumulated byproduct with less fibre and fats in rice which is rich source for B vitamin and energy source.

Molasses

• It is byproduct coming from concentrated materials with a syrup component that has sugarcane as a common. -4 are in common ( beet,wood and citrus) which sugarcane makes a product of 3% ash and protein. The sugar beets by the product that have beet has a rate that doubles that from sugar cane. The juice of pressed citrus has a taste of proteins for livestock with woody is a biproduct from palatable industry to protein for cattle. With energy like and palatabilty it reduces dusts for pellet rations. Up to 15%(cattle) and 5% for fowl ration quality is determined by Brix.
• Most average 80.

The Animal and Veg Oil/Fat Products

• With better diet density there are increasing proportions of cerals that makes the diet with high the negative effects on rumen, then the energy rations fats which are potential with consideration. high growth leads the increase for broiler(s) energy which provide 2.25% for carbos/proteins/ Fats and energy will also will reduce dust levels where the fat and vegetable oils are sunflower, corn, peanut oil, talow and animal fat that is fed to livestock. with this type having more saturated than non while they are saturated with linolenic vegetable one, it is antioxidant dependent.

Anumal and Plant Protein Supplements

• Origin can range 47% to 1 that is rich and fiber to the fiber is in over with calcium a.

Protein Concentrates

• Plant oil is with protein varies via processing seeds when a forcer is to extract with an organic oil with less that , screw press is needed as solvent with 35> is not for solvent extractions. -Cysteines and metalysine make oil seeds and the cereals that uses cant use the protein with simple stomach, but 95% uses true with higher value are the B vitamins that are oil high but has less micro values. Distrupting is in the ratio They are better by peanut/soy and cotton in those areas.

Ground nuts

45%CP, Cyslacking plus Aflas->mycotoxin and need protein(cysein) protection when the animal ingests them due to lack.

Soya Bean

• With High EAA and methionine plus protein protection factors for both are necessary for good digestibility while decreasing high levels for soft products with limited consumption With 40+% and two more for proteins that are limited by proteins these should be used.

Cotton seeds

Low protein for cysteins is countered by Ca addition.

Linseed

• has the enzyme to protect

The non

• The North of Indian mustards have lower protein source And Ca and P, 74 to 26 with protein with 1:5 ratio.
• Sesame is protein high in leicune but limited if seed proteins are made from oil seeds. that makes them inffective when mixed with young poultry and pigs with high levels of phyric acids while cattle have up to 15%.

Other Seed Facts

• High fiber= low digestibility with ratio with calcium; with toxicity and gut discomfrot and be avoided by chicken even canola. which requires the AA lysine

The Animal Protein

• With EAA deficiencies ,they are 15 and protect. Milk,fish, waste products and meat products.
• -- Fish made from meal and cooking/dring where e. coli in check with 10 percent in value with rich B-plex, Ca, P with trypo AA and lysine
• Meat and waste are rendered in animal products to keep levels good . high and protein high (60-70).
• There it is not is swines enteric acerman.and the fat stays with 9. The Hatchery with unhatched mix are high for those with those who are poultry litter where layers and excreata are measured, but averages at 21 to 28 percentage.

Simple Protien

• Yeast and byproducts are rapidly created can be wasted on large scale scale. There it has nucleic acids and urics to protect the products but there may have cellulose deficiency and is not recommended for young as it will increase to about 10%

There are Carpo's will then increase To protein there was protect as you eat the microbes and then there's not as much wastage as ureic 46. It needs to be treated protect. it it or you made cause atatix, tetany. It goes with carbos with sulfurs. And it doesnt have. micro values, . You also need small amounts and always drink with it.