Questions and Answers
Which of the following are considered aetiological factors for disease? (Select all that apply)
The main processes causing illness or disease include inflammation.
True
What is a congenital disorder?
A disorder which one is born with.
A disease with sudden onset often requiring urgent treatment is called an ______.
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Match the following terms with their definitions:
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What is the significance of the suffix '-itis' in medical terminology?
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Tumours are recognised by the suffix ______.
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What is homeostasis?
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What are the three components of a control system for homeostasis?
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Define the terms internal environment and homeostasis.
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What are some physiological variables that need to be maintained in homeostasis?
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What happens when body temperature falls below the preset level?
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What is the role of the skin in relation to the internal environment?
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Which of the following are examples of positive feedback mechanisms?
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Homeostatic imbalance occurs when the level of a factor falls outside the normal range.
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What is the primary role of erythrocytes?
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The __________ system consists of a network of nerve fibres for communication.
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Match the following body systems with their main functions:
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Which of the following substances does the body need to take in?
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The heart is under voluntary control.
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What is the main function of the respiratory system?
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The ________ is involved in the elimination of waste products from the body.
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Which of the following is NOT considered an essential survival need?
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Immunity only develops after exposure to an antigen.
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Study Notes
The Body and Its Constituents
- Levels of Structural Complexity:
- The human body is complex and made up of interdependent parts
- It can be studied at various levels: cells, tissues, organs, systems, and the organism as a whole
Introduction to the Human Body
- The Internal Environment and Homeostasis:
- Homeostasis: the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in the external environment
- Importance of homeostasis: essential for life and health
- Feedback mechanisms:
- Negative feedback: counteracts changes to maintain homeostasis
- Positive feedback: amplifies changes to achieve a specific response
- Consequences of homeostatic imbalance: can lead to illness or disease
Survival Needs of the Body
- Communication:
- Importance: essential for survival and well-being
- Types:
- Internal communication: between cells, tissues, and organs
- External communication: with the environment
- Transport Systems:
- Importance: necessary for survival
- Functions:
- Transport of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products
Intake of Raw Materials and Elimination of Waste
- Intake of Oxygen:
- Importance: necessary for cellular respiration
- Dietary Intake:
- Importance: necessary for energy and nutrient supply
- Elimination of Waste:
- Importance: necessary for maintaining a healthy internal environment
Protection and Survival
- Protection against the External Environment:
- Importance: essential for survival
- Mechanisms:
- Skin: provides a barrier against external environment
- Immune system: protects against pathogens and foreign substances
- Movement:
- Importance: essential for survival and well-being
- Reproduction:
- Importance: necessary for continuation of the species
The Study of Illness
- Aetiology:
- Study of the causes of disease
- Pathogenesis:
- Study of the development and progression of disease### The Human Body
- The human body consists of different levels of structural organization and complexity.
- The lowest level is the cell, which is the smallest independent unit of living matter.
- There are millions of cells in the body, each with a specific function that contributes to the body's needs.
- Cells are specialized and carry out particular functions due to their structure and properties.
The Internal Environment
- The internal environment is the water-based medium in which body cells exist.
- Cells are bathed in fluid called interstitial or tissue fluid.
- Oxygen and other substances necessary for cells must pass from the internal transport systems through the interstitial fluid to reach them.
- Similarly, cell waste products must move through the interstitial fluid to the transport systems to be excreted.
Cell Membrane
- The cell membrane provides a potential barrier to substances entering or leaving the cell.
- The structure of membranes confers certain properties, including selective permeability or semipermeability.
- This prevents large molecules from moving between the cell and the interstitial fluid.
Homeostasis
- Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment within narrow limits.
- Homeostasis is a dynamic, ever-changing situation that is essential for the well-being of the individual.
- There are many factors in the internal environment that must be maintained within narrow limits, including:
- Temperature
- Water and electrolyte concentrations
- pH (acidity or alkalinity of body fluids)
- Blood glucose levels
- Blood and tissue oxygen and carbon dioxide levels
- Blood pressure
Control Systems
- Control systems detect and respond to changes in the internal environment.
- A control system consists of three basic components:
- Detector or sensor
- Control centre
- Effector
- The control centre determines the limits within which the variable factor should be maintained.
- The output from the control centre activates mechanisms that raise or lower the variable factor.
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
- Negative feedback mechanisms are used to maintain homeostasis.
- In systems controlled by negative feedback, the effector response decreases or negates the effect of the original stimulus, restoring homeostasis.
- Examples of negative feedback mechanisms include:
- Control of body temperature
- Control of room temperature by a domestic boiler
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
- Positive feedback mechanisms are amplifier or cascade systems.
- In positive feedback mechanisms, the stimulus progressively increases the response, amplifying it.
- Examples of positive feedback mechanisms include:
- Blood clotting
- Uterine contractions during labour
Communication and Transport Systems
- Communication and transport systems ensure that all cells have access to the internal and external environments.
- The blood, circulatory system, and lymphatic system are involved in transport and communication.
- Communication systems involve receiving, collating, and responding to appropriate information.
The Blood
- The blood transports substances around the body through a network of blood vessels.
- The blood consists of two parts: plasma and cells suspended in the plasma.
- Plasma is mainly water with a wide range of substances dissolved or suspended in it, including:
- Nutrients absorbed from the alimentary canal
- Oxygen absorbed from the lungs
- Waste products from body cells
- Blood cells include:
- Erythrocytes (red blood cells) concerned with oxygen transport
- Leukocytes (white blood cells) concerned with protection against microbes and other potentially damaging substances
- Thrombocytes (platelets) involved in blood clotting
The Circulatory System
- The circulatory system consists of a network of blood vessels and the heart.
- Blood vessels include:
- Arteries that carry blood away from the heart
- Veins that return blood to the heart
- Capillaries that link the arteries and veins
- The heart is a muscular sac that pumps blood around the body and maintains blood pressure.
The Lymphatic System
- The lymphatic system provides the sites for formation and maturation of lymphocytes, the white blood cells involved in immunity.
- Lymph is tissue fluid containing large molecules, including proteins, fragments of damaged tissue cells, and microbes.
- Lymph is transported along lymph vessels and is returned to the bloodstream.
- There are collections of lymph nodes situated at various points along the length of the lymph vessels, where lymph is filtered and microbes, noxious substances, and some waste materials are removed.### The Lymphatic System
- Consists of a series of lymph vessels that begin as blind-ended tubes in the spaces between blood capillaries and tissue cells
- Structurally similar to veins and blood capillaries, but with larger pores in the walls of lymph capillaries
- Important for immune function and fat absorption
The Nervous System
- Consists of two main parts: central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system (nerves)
- Peripheral nervous system has sensory (afferent) nerves that transmit information from organs and tissues to the brain
- Peripheral nervous system also has motor (efferent) nerves that transmit information from the brain to muscles and glands
- Nerve impulses travel along nerve fibers at great speed, allowing for rapid responses
- Adjustments to many body functions occur within a few seconds due to the nervous system
Communication and the Endocrine System
- Endocrine system consists of glands that produce and secrete hormones that circulate in the blood
- Hormones stimulate target glands or tissues, influencing metabolic and other cellular activities
- Endocrine system provides slower and more precise control of body functions than the nervous system
- Hormones regulate growth and maturation, as well as metabolic processes such as energy production
Senses and Sensory Organs
- Five special senses: sight, hearing, balance, smell, and taste
- Each sense has a specific sensory receptor cell or organ
- Brain collates information from multiple senses to create a complete picture of the environment
- Senses are often used in combination to interpret stimuli
The Skeletal System
- Provides the bony framework of the body
- Movement occurs at joints between bones
- Skeletal muscles move the joints and are controlled by the nervous system
- Bones, muscles, and joints work together to allow for movement and support of the body
Intake of Oxygen, Water, and Food
- Oxygen, water, and food are essential for human life
- Oxygen is necessary for energy production in cells
- Water is important for many bodily functions, including temperature regulation and waste removal
- Food provides energy and nutrients for growth and maintenance of the body
Elimination of Waste
- Waste products include carbon dioxide, urine, and feces
- Carbon dioxide is excreted by the respiratory system
- Urine is formed by the kidneys and excreted through the urinary system
- Feces are formed in the digestive system and eliminated through the anus
Metabolism
- Metabolism is the sum total of chemical activity in the body
- Metabolism includes anabolism (building complex molecules) and catabolism (breaking down molecules for energy)
- Energy is obtained from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins in the diet
Protection and Survival
- Protection against the external environment is provided by the skin, digestive system, and immune system
- Immune system protects against specific pathogens and foreign substances
- Skin provides a barrier against invasion by microbes, chemicals, and dehydration
- Reflex actions and protective movements help to prevent injury and maintain homeostasis
Reproduction
- Reproduction is essential for the continuation of a species
- Female ovum is fertilized by male sperm to form a zygote
- Zygote develops into a fetus during pregnancy, and is born after approximately 40 weeks
- Hormones play a crucial role in the reproductive cycle and development
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Description
This quiz covers anatomy and physiology in health and illness based on the 9th edition of Ross and Wilson's textbook. It's ideal for health sciences students and professionals. Topics include human anatomy, physiology, and their applications in health and illness.
