Roman History: Founding Myths

• Study guide for understanding Roman History and Historiography.

Test Format

• Part A consists of Multiple Choice questions.
• Part B requires answering 3 out of 4 short answer questions.
• Part C involves primary source analysis; choose extracts from Livy & Sallust, or Tacitus' Annals, and answer related questions.

Key Names & Terms

• Focuses on founding myths and early Rome.

Aeneas and the Trojan Origins of Rome

• Aeneas was a Trojan prince, the son of Venus and Anchises, who escaped Troy's destruction.
• Aeneas then led his people to Italy, where his descendants founded Rome according to Virgil's Aeneid.
• The myth links Rome to the Trojan War, elevating Roman prestige and reinforcing Rome's destiny to rule.

Romulus & Remus

• Legend tells of twin brothers, sons of Rhea Silvia and Mars, who were abandoned and raised by a she-wolf and shepherd.
• The brothers decided to establish a city but disagreed on the location.
• Romulus then killed Remus and named the city Rome.
• Roman foundation emphasizes themes of divine favor, martial destiny, and inherent violence/fratricide.

Seven Kings of Rome (753–509 BC)

• Romulus (753–717 BC) established political and military institutions and abducted the Sabine women to increase the population.
• Numa Pompilius focused on religious and legal institutions and is credited with founding the Pontifex Maximus.
• Tullus Hostilius was a warlike king who expanded Rome’s territory through military conquest.
• Ancus Marcius built Rome's first bridge and expanded the city's port at Ostia.
• Tarquinius Priscus was an Etruscan king credited with major architectural developments.
• Servius Tullius established the census to divide citizens into classes based on wealth, laying groundwork for the later Republican political system.
• Tarquinius Superbus (534–509 BC) was the last king, ruling as a tyrant and expelled after his son Sextus assaulted Lucretia, leading to revolt.

Foundation of the Republic (509 BC)

• Expulsion of Tarquin occurred after Lucretia's suicide, symbolized Roman virtue and resistance to tyranny.
• Junius Brutus led the Roman aristocracy to overthrow Tarquin and abolish the monarchy.
• the king's powers were split between two consuls, elected yearly and the Republic introduced a system of checks and balances to prevent tyranny.
• Significance: A transition from the monarchy to a mixed constitution with aristocratic, democratic & monarchical elements (Senate, Assemblies, Consuls).

The Struggle of the Orders (494–287 BC)

• Conflict arose between Patricians and Plebeians, with Plebeians seeking political representation and rights.
• 494 BC - First Secession of the Plebs led to the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs, with veto powers.
• 450 BC - The Twelve Tables became Rome's initial codified laws, ensuring equal legal rights.
• 287 BC - Lex Hortensia decreed laws passed by the Plebeian Assembly as binding for all Romans.
• Significance: the Republic became inclusive but power still largely rested with the aristocracy over time.

Roman Expansion in Italy (509–264 BC)

• Latin War (341–338 BC) resulted in Rome asserting dominance over its Latin allies.
• Some allies received citizenship, while others became allies without full rights.
• Samnite Wars (343–290 BC) led to Rome defeating the Samnites and securing dominance in Italy.
• Battle of Sentinum (295 BC) was a key battle where Rome defeated a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls.
• Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) saw Pyrrhus of Epirus fight Rome, winning costly victories but ultimately withdrawing.
• By 264 BC, Rome controlled all of Italy.

The Punic Wars (264–146 BC), Rome vs. Carthage

• The First Punic War (264–241BC) cause was a clash over Sicily with the outcome being Rome built a navy securing key battles and forced Carthage to surrender Sicily.
• The impact Rome became a naval power.
• Hannibal Barca was a Carthaginian general who led war elephants over the Alps into Italy during the Second Punic war (218-202 BC).
• Hannibal's greatest victory, the Battle of Cannae (216 BC) saw his forces annihilate a much larger Roman army.
• Roman Resilience: Rome refused to surrender, instead of fighting a war of attrition and invading Spain and North Africa
• Battle of Zama (202 BC) saw Scipio Africanus defeat Hannibal, ending the war.
• the impact was Rome became the dominant power in the western Mediterranean.
• Third Punic War (149–146 BC) cause was Rome fearing a revived Carthage where Rome destroyed Carthage and enslaved its population. The result was Rome became the uncontested superpower in the Mediterranean.

The Fall of the Republic (133–27 BC)

• Tiberius Gracchus proposed land redistribution but was assassinated as part of the Gracchi Reforms (133-121 BC).
• Gaius Gracchus also expanded reforms but was killed with the significance being set precedent for violence in Roman politics.
• Marius reformed the army, so landless citizens could join.
• Sulla then became dictator, purged enemies, and weakened the Tribune of the Plebs during the Marius & Sulla Civil Wars (107-78 BC).
• Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a political alliance.
• 49 BC – Caesar Crossed the Rubicon, sparking civil war.
• 45 BC – Caesar becomes dictator for life, assassinated in 44 BC.
• Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus sought revenge for Caesar.
• 31 BC – Battle of Actium – Octavian defeated Antony & Cleopatra.

The Early Empire & the Annals of Tacitus

• Augustus (27 BC–14 AD) established the Principate, maintaining Republican forms while holding absolute power.
• Augustus wrote Res Gestae, his autobiography, justifying his rule.
• Tiberius (14-37 AD) ruled during Tacitus' View, who depicted him as paranoid and manipulative, referencing Germanicus' Death (19 AD) involving Piso, suspected of poisoning him and the Mutiny in Germania & Pannonia to highlight moral decline.

Summarized Timeline of Key Events

• 753 BC – Founding of Rome saw Romulus kill Remus and establish the city.
• 753–509 BC – Rule of the Seven Kings and Kings like Numa (religion), Servius Tullius (census), and Tarquin the Proud (tyrant) shape early Rome.
• 509 BC – Overthrow of the Monarchy where Tarquin the Proud is expelled, and the Republic established.
• 494 BC – First Secession of the Plebs saw Plebeians demand representation, leading to the Tribune of the Plebs.
• 338 BC – Roman Control of Latium with Rome defeating the Latin League and expanding influence.
• 295 BC - Battle of Sentinum where Rome defeated a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls, securing dominance in Italy.
• 264–241 BC – First Punic War where Rome built a navy and defeated Carthage, gaining Sicily.
• 218–202 BC – Second Punic War with Hannibal invading Italy but eventually defeated by Scipio Africanus at Zama.
• 146 BC – Third Punic War with Rome destroying Carthage, becoming the dominant Mediterranean power.
• 133 BC – Tiberius Gracchus' Reforms & Death advocating land redistribution; assassinated by the Senate
• 107 BC – Marius' Military Reforms allowed allows landless citizens to serve in the army, shifting loyalty from Rome to generals
• 88–82 BC – Sulla's Civil War saw Sulla march on Rome, become dictator and weaken the power of the tribunes.
• 60 BC – First Triumvirate with Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus forming a political alliance.
• 49 BC – Caesar Crosses the Rubicon triggering Civil War.
• 44 BC - Assassination of Caesar by Brutus along side Cassius to "restore the Republic."
• 31 BC – Battle of Actium saw Octavian defeat Antony and Cleopatra, consolidating power.
• 27 BC – Beginning of the Empire began when Octavian became Augustus, ending the Republic.
• 14 AD – Death of Augustus and Tiberius becoming emperor.
• 14 AD – Mutiny in Germania & Pannonia with Roman legions rebelling over pay, Germanicus restores order.
• 15–16 AD – Germanicus' German Campaigns avenged Rome's defeat at Teutoburg Forest, but Tiberius recalls him.
• 19 AD – Death of Germanicus from suspicious circumstances in Syria.

Main Topics

• Legends of Early Rome featuring Aeneas (Trojan hero), Romulus & Remus (twin brothers), and the early legends' purpose to justify Rome's origins.
• Livy's Account highlights Rome's foundation and moral lessons.

History and Historiography in Rome

• Purpose of Roman Historiography was to instruct, reinforce Roman values, and explain Rome's greatness.
  • Key Historians:
    • Livy – History of Rome, emphasized moral decline.
    • Sallust – Catiline's War, blamed the Republic's decline on corruption.
    • Tacitus – Annals, critical of emperors, highlights corruption and decline.

The Regal Period (753–509 BC)

• Seven Kings of Rome established political, religious, and social institutions.
  • Numa Pompilius established religious customs.
  • Servius Tullius conducted the first census and divided society into classes.
  • Tarquinius Superbus was the last king, overthrown due to tyranny

The Foundation of the Republic (509 BC)

• Junius Brutus led the revolt against Tarquin the Proud.
• A New Republican System featured two consuls elected annually to replace kings.

Struggle of the Orders

• Plebeians vs. Patricians, led to
  • 494 BC – Tribune of the Plebs was created (plebeian representation)
  • 450 BC – The Twelve Tables (first written laws)
  • 287 BC – Lex Hortensia (plebeian laws binding for all Romans)

The Expansion of Rome I: Italy (509–264 BC)

• Roman expansion occurred through alliances, conquests, and diplomacy.
• The Latin War (341–338 BC) saw Rome secure dominance over the Latin League.
• The Samnite Wars (343–290 BC) resulted in Rome's victories leading to control over central Italy.
• The Battle of Sentinum (295 BC) where Rome defeated a coalition of Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls.
• Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) resulted in Pyrrhus of Epirus winning costly victories but losing the war.
• By 264 BC, Rome controlled all of Italy.

The Expansion of Rome II: Rome Becomes an Empire (264–146 BC)

• The First Punic War (264–241 BC), Rome built a navy, defeated Carthage, and took Sicily.
• Second Punic War (218–202 BC)
  • Hannibal's Invasion of Italy saw him cross the Alps, and win at Cannae (216 BC).
  • Roman Resilience was when they avoided direct battle and fought a war of attrition.
  • Battle of Zama (202 BC) when Scipio Africanus defeated Hannibal.
• Third Punic War (149–146 BC) Rome destroyed Carthage, solidifying the Mediterranean dominance.

The Last Age of the Republic (133–27 BC)

• The Gracchi Reforms (133–121 BC)saw Tiberius and Gais Gracchus assassinted for their social reform.
• Marius & Sulla (107–78 BC) saw Sulla's Dictatorship (82–79 BC) march on Rome, purge enemies, and strengthened the Senate.
• A shared power between Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus
• Caesar's Civil War (49–45 BC) ended with Caesar winning.
• Julius Caesar's Assassination (44 BC) was led by Brutus & Cassius, and was followed by the Second Triumvirate (43 BC) which saw Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus take power. Battle of Actium (31 BC) followed with Octavian defeating Antony & Cleopatra and 27 BC – Augustus (Octavian) becoming Rome's first emperor.

The Rise of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD)

• the established the Principate maintaining the illusion of the Republic while holding absolute power..
• Res Gestae (The Achievements of the Divine Augustus) justified his rule
• Augustus' Military & Political Reforms controlled the provinces, reforming the army, and stabilizing Rome.

Finals of Imperial Rome (14–19 AD) – Tacitus

• Critique was that Augustus gradually took power, undermining the Republic as well as senate forcing Tiberius acceptance setting up the imperial rule.
• Germanicus died under suspicious circumstances while in the East with Piso (governor of Syria) suspected of poisoning him and Tacitus' Perspective suggesting Tiberius may have orchestrated it.

Main Historical Figures in the Annals

• AUGUSTUS – First emperor of Rome, died in 14 AD.
• TIBERIUS – His successor, depicted as cruel and paranoid by Tacitus.
• GERMANICUS – Popular general, suppressed mutinies, campaigned in Germania, mysteriously died in 19 AD.
• PISO – Governor of Syria, suspected in Germanicus' death.
• LIVIA (Augusta) – Augustus' wife, mother of Tiberius, rumored to have influenced imperial politics.
• ARMINIUS – Germanic leader, defeated Romans at Teutoburg Forest (9 AD).
• CAECINA SEVERUS – General in Germania, involved in suppressing mutinies.

Key Takeaways

• Rome transitioned from monarchy to republic, then to empire.
• Roman expansion was fueled by military victories, alliances, and strategic colonization.
• The Republic fell due to internal conflicts, power struggles, and military overreach.
• Tacitus' Annals portray the early empire as morally corrupt, with emperors consolidating power at the Senate's expense.