Rivers and Floodplains Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What characterizes floodplains?

  • They are always dry and do not support vegetation.
  • They are elevated areas that are rarely inundated.
  • They are flat, low-lying areas that are frequently inundated. (correct)
  • They are formed exclusively from glacial deposits.

How are natural levees formed?

  • By volcanic activity altering a river's course.
  • By sediment being transported upriver and deposited in flood-prone areas.
  • Through the accumulation of coarser materials near riverbanks after floods. (correct)
  • By erosion of riverbanks during droughts.

What happens to a river's velocity when it reaches its mouth?

  • It increases significantly as it heads toward the ocean.
  • It decreases rapidly when entering a larger body of water. (correct)
  • It becomes unpredictable and varies significantly.
  • It remains constant regardless of the body of water.

Which type of delta is characterized by a few widely spaced channels extending into the water?

<p>Bird’s Foot Delta (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the probability of a flood occurring in a given year?

<p>Recurrence interval (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of flooding occurs when rivers overflow their banks due to excessive rain?

<p>Fluvial Flooding (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily causes tidal flooding?

<p>Sea and tidal river actions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about sediment transport in rivers is true?

<p>Coarser materials settle out near the headwaters, while finer sediments move further downstream. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process results in rock peeling off in sheets rather than breaking into grains?

<p>Exfoliation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is formed when metallic elements combine with oxygen during weathering?

<p>Rust (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions is NOT necessary for karst landscape development?

<p>Low humidity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which weathering process involves the chemical breakdown of a rock due to water interaction?

<p>Hydration/Hydrolysis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Differential weathering is responsible for the formation of which structures?

<p>Arches (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the circular depressions formed by the subsidence of surface materials known as?

<p>Sinkholes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common result when water vapor combines with carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?

<p>Carbonic acid (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of karst feature forms when stalactites and stalagmites meet?

<p>Columns (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What mechanism aids in the formation of honeycomb structures in coastal areas?

<p>Salinization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following processes does NOT lead to the breakdown of minerals through chemical weathering?

<p>Mechanical erosion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor used to classify different climatic regions?

<p>Temperature and precipitation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which climatic region is characterized by high humidity and significant rainfall throughout the year due to the ITCZ?

<p>Tropical rainforest (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which climatic region experiences a dry season lasting approximately one month or longer?

<p>Tropical monsoon (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which climate type has the greatest summer precipitation influenced by mT air masses?

<p>Humid subtropical hot summer (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do microthermal climates typically occur only in the Northern Hemisphere?

<p>Lack of sizable land masses in the Southern Hemisphere (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of polar and highland climates?

<p>No true summer and low temperatures (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of dry climate receives the highest average annual temperature?

<p>Tropical/subtropical hot desert (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of air mass is characterized as extremely dry and cold?

<p>Continental Arctic (cA) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a distinguishing feature of humid continental climates?

<p>High summer temperatures and significant seasonal variation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which climatic region is particularly common in Canada, Alaska, and parts of Russia and is characterized by low precipitation?

<p>Subarctic cool summer (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which lifting mechanism occurs when air is forced upwards due to converging winds towards a low-pressure area?

<p>Convergent Lifting (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to an air mass as it spends more time over its source region?

<p>Its characteristics become more defined. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which climate type do annual average temperatures often exceed 120°F during summer months?

<p>Tropical/subtropical hot desert (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of lifting occurs due to the heating of the Earth's surface, creating buoyant air that rises?

<p>Convectional Lifting (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the boundary of climatic regions?

<p>Transition zones with gradual changes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In orographic lifting, what is the resulting effect on the leeward slope?

<p>Dry conditions and potential rain shadow (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following climates receives most of its annual precipitation during winter months?

<p>Mediterranean (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes maritime (m) from continental (c) air masses?

<p>Maritime air masses are associated with high humidity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario primarily leads to convectional lifting?

<p>Warm air rising over a heated surface (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the phenomenon of different air masses colliding and creating weather?

<p>Cyclogenesis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary process by which rivers shape the landscape?

<p>Fluvial processes involving erosion and deposition (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which drainage pattern is characterized by streams flowing parallel to one another?

<p>Parallel (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of stream flows all year long?

<p>Perennial stream (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by peak flow in stream discharge measurements?

<p>The maximum discharge resulting from precipitation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does drainage density relate to geology and landscapes?

<p>Higher in easily erodible landscapes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of urbanization on peak flow in streams?

<p>It can increase the peak flow and make it occur earlier (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of load in a stream consists of fine-grained particles that are held aloft?

<p>Suspended load (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of Earth's water is classified as freshwater?

<p>2.8% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of erosion does hydraulic action perform?

<p>Loosens, lifts, and transports materials due to flowing water (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the hydrologic cycle has the longest residency time?

<p>Subsurface (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process is responsible for the majority of evaporation in the hydrologic cycle?

<p>Evaporation over oceans (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What ultimately describes the gradient of a stream?

<p>Elevation drop per unit of distance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens when actual evapotranspiration (AET) is less than potential evapotranspiration (PET)?

<p>Drought conditions may occur. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a nickpoint?

<p>An abrupt change in the stream's profile, like a waterfall (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What causes waterfalls to gradually migrate upstream?

<p>Undercutting of resistant strata leading to collapse (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is a water budget specifically calculated?

<p>By measuring water inputs, outputs, and storage. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do glaciers play in surface water resources?

<p>They act as a permanent source of freshwater. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the physical arrangement of streams within a drainage basin?

<p>Drainage patterns (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of aquifer is characterized by having impermeable layers above and below it?

<p>Confined Aquifer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by internal drainage in a drainage basin?

<p>Water leaves primarily through evaporation and subsurface flow (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which geological feature acts as a drainage divide determining water flow directions?

<p>Mountain ridges (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of reservoirs created by dams?

<p>Flood control (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following defines non-consumptive water use?

<p>Diversion of water that is returned to its source. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What contributes to water pollution from non-point sources?

<p>Agricultural runoff (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What strategy is increasingly considered for addressing water scarcity?

<p>Desalination of seawater (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does water transfer help regions facing a water deficit?

<p>It reduces dependence on local water sources. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary component is responsible for atmospheric water vapor released by plants?

<p>Transpiration (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor directly influences the moisture demand in a water budget?

<p>Potential evapotranspiration (PET) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is Meteorology?

Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere's physical characteristics, motions, and how it interacts with other Earth systems.

What's the difference between weather and climate?

Weather refers to the short-term, day-to-day conditions of the atmosphere, while climate describes the long-term average weather patterns in a region.

What are air masses?

Air masses are large bodies of air with relatively uniform temperature and moisture characteristics.

What's a cA air mass?

A cA air mass is extremely dry and cold.

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What is convergent lifting?

Convergent lifting happens when air flows into a low-pressure area, forcing the air upwards.

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What is convectional lifting?

Convectional lifting occurs when air is heated from below, making it buoyant and causing it to rise.

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What is orographic lifting?

Orographic lifting happens when air is forced to rise by mountains or hills.

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What is frontal lifting?

Frontal lifting occurs when warm air is forced to rise over colder air at a front.

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Depositional Landforms

Landforms created by the accumulation of sediments transported by rivers and streams.

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Floodplains

Flat, low-lying areas adjacent to a river channel that are frequently inundated during floods.

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Natural Levees

Raised banks along a river channel formed by the deposition of coarser sediments during floods.

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River Delta

The deposition of sediment at the mouth of a river where it enters a larger body of water.

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Arcuate Delta

A delta with an intricate network of channels forming an arch-shaped pattern.

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Estuarine Delta

A delta formed by a river flowing into an estuary, where freshwater meets saltwater.

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Bird's Foot Delta

A delta characterized by a few wide, elongated channels extending into the main body of water.

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Flood

An event where water overflows the natural banks of a stream.

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Exfoliation

A type of physical weathering where layers of rock peel off in sheets due to pressure release.

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Hydration

The process where a mineral combines with water, changing its chemical structure but not creating a new compound.

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Hydrolysis

The breakdown of a mineral by reacting with water, resulting in a new mineral or chemical compound.

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Oxidation

The chemical reaction where metallic elements combine with oxygen, often resulting in a reddish hue.

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Dissolution of Carbonates

The process where carbonic acid, formed from water and carbon dioxide, dissolves minerals like limestone and marble.

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Differential Weathering

When different layers of rock experience different weathering rates even under the same conditions.

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Karst Landscapes

Landscapes dominated by limestone formations where chemical weathering, especially carbonate dissolution, shapes the topography.

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Sinkholes

Circular depressions in the ground caused by the collapse of surface materials or underground cavities.

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Disappearing Streams

Streams that flow underground, often recharging aquifers, due to the porous limestone formations.

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Dripstones

Speleothems (cave formations), formed as water containing dissolved minerals drips from the ceiling.

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Drainage Basin

The area of land where water flows into a particular stream or river.

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Drainage Divide

A ridge or elevated area that separates drainage basins, directing water flow to different streams or rivers.

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Continental Divide

A major drainage divide that separates water flow into different major water bodies, such as oceans or seas.

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Internal Drainage

A drainage basin where water does not flow to an ocean, but instead evaporates or flows into a closed basin.

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Drainage Density

A measure of how densely a basin is carved by streams, calculated as the total length of all stream channels divided by the basin's area.

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Dendritic Drainage Pattern

A stream drainage pattern resembling the branches of a tree, with tributaries joining a main stream.

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Parallel Drainage Pattern

A stream drainage pattern where streams flow parallel to one another, usually on a steeply sloping landscape.

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Rectangular Drainage Pattern

A stream drainage pattern with sharp, right-angle turns, often found in landscapes with fractures and faults.

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Streamflow

The volume of water flowing in a river at a given point in time.

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Stream Discharge

The volume of water flowing in a river per unit of time, often measured in cubic feet per second (cfs).

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Turbulent Flow

A type of water flow in a stream where water moves chaotically due to friction, creating rapids and eddies.

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Laminar Flow

A type of water flow in a stream where water moves in a smooth, organized manner with minimal friction.

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Hydrograph

A graph showing the discharge of a river over time.

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Hydraulic Action

A type of stream erosion where flowing water loosens, lifts, and moves rocks and sediments.

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Stream Abrasion

A type of stream erosion where rocks and sediments collide with each other, wearing them down and producing smaller particles.

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Hydrology

The study of water, including its global circulation, distribution, and properties, primarily focusing on water at and below Earth's surface.

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Water on Earth

Earth is unique in the solar system due to having significant quantities of water covering 71% of its surface.

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Origin of Earth's Water

Much of Earth's water originated from its interior and escaped through outgassing, where water and water vapor emerge from below the surface as a gas.

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Distribution of Water

Over 97% of Earth's water is found in oceans, while the remaining 2.8% is freshwater, with glaciers and ice sheets holding the largest portion.

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Hydrologic Cycle

The continuous circulation of water between the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.

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Hydrologic Cycle Components

The hydrologic cycle consists of three main components: the atmosphere (fastest part), the surface, and the subsurface.

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Atmospheric Inputs in the Hydrologic Cycle

Evaporation, primarily occurring over oceans, and transpiration, the release of water vapor from plants, contribute water to the atmosphere.

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Atmospheric Outputs in the Hydrologic Cycle

Precipitation, mainly over oceans, is the primary way water leaves the atmosphere and returns to Earth's surface.

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Surface Water Pathways

Precipitation reaches the surface through interception (landing on vegetation) and throughfall (reaching the ground directly).

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Surface Water Outputs

Surface outputs include evapotranspiration (combination of evaporation and transpiration) and percolation (gradual water movement through soil into groundwater).

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Subsurface Water Movement

Water reaches the subsurface through infiltration and further percolation. Most subsurface water returns to the atmosphere through evaporation or transpiration.

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Water Budget

A water budget measures the inputs, outputs, and storage of water for a specific location and time. It's important for managing water resources.

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Precipitation in a Water Budget

Precipitation in all its forms supplies moisture to Earth's surface. It's measured using tipping bucket rain gauges and exhibits spatial patterns reflecting lifting mechanisms and air mass types.

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Evapotranspiration in a Water Budget

Evapotranspiration determines the moisture demand. Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) is the maximum possible, while Actual Evapotranspiration (AET) considers available moisture. Lysimeters measure evapotranspiration.

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Soil Moisture Storage in a Water Budget

Soil moisture storage holds water, and it's recharged when filled and utilized to meet water demand. Capillary water is available for use.

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What is climate?

Climate refers to the average weather conditions of a region over a long period, typically 30 years or more. It encompasses aspects like temperature, precipitation, humidity, and wind patterns.

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How is climate classified?

Climate classification systems group locations into categories based on shared climatic characteristics. The most common classifications use temperature and precipitation as primary factors, as they reflect underlying energy and moisture dynamics.

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What are the main climatic regions?

Climate regions are broad geographic areas characterized by similar overall climate patterns. The six main categories are tropical, mesothermal, microthermal, polar, highland, and dry.

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What are the characteristics of tropical climates?

Tropical climates are located near the equator and experience warm temperatures year-round. They are typically characterized by abundant rainfall due to the influence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

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What is a tropical rainforest climate?

Tropical rainforest climates are constantly moist and warm, with high precipitation year-round. They support dense, evergreen forests and are often home to diverse ecosystems.

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What is a tropical monsoon climate?

Tropical monsoon climates have distinct wet and dry seasons. The wet season is marked by heavy rainfall when the ITCZ is present, while the dry season can last for several months.

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What is a tropical savanna climate?

Tropical savanna climates have a shorter wet season than monsoon climates, with a pronounced dry season. The landscape typically features grasslands with scattered trees.

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What are mesothermal climates?

Mesothermal climates are temperate climates with warm summers and mild winters. They exhibit more distinct seasonality than tropical climates and are influenced by air mass interactions.

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What is a humid subtropical hot summer climate?

Humid subtropical hot summer climates experience hot, humid summers due to maritime tropical (mT) air masses. Winters are milder with precipitation from midlatitude cyclones.

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What is a humid subtropical dry winter climate?

Humid subtropical dry winter climates are influenced by the winter dry phase of the monsoon. They have a distinct dry season in winter and heavy summer rainfall.

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What is a marine west coast climate?

Marine west coast climates have mild winters and cool summers due to the moderating influence of the ocean. They experience frequent precipitation from maritime polar (mP) air masses.

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What is a Mediterranean climate?

Mediterranean climates have warm, dry summers due to the dominance of subtropical high pressure. They receive most of their precipitation during the winter months.

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What are microthermal climates?

Microthermal climates are cool to cold climates with distinct seasons. They experience cold winters and are located poleward of mesothermal climates, primarily in the Northern Hemisphere.

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What is a humid continental hot summer climate?

Humid continental hot summer climates have the warmest summers within the microthermal class. They receive precipitation from maritime tropical (mT) air masses in the summer.

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What is a humid continental mild summer climate?

Humid continental mild summer climates are slightly cooler than hot summer climates. They experience lower overall precipitation but heavier snowfall.

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Study Notes

Earth's Climatic Regions

  • Topic 9 - 10/02/24
  • Climate is the average weather condition over many years
  • This average condition can still differ over time, which is called climate change
  • Climatology is the study of climate and its variability, including long-term weather patterns and causal factors
  • Although no two places have the same climate, places can be grouped into climatic regions based on similarities
  • Climate is generally classified based on temperature and precipitation since they integrate pressure, lifting mechanisms, air masses, and energy availability
  • Classification is the grouping of things into categories based on general similarities
  • Climate classifications are based on an empirical approach that uses real-world data
  • The boundaries of climate regions are transition zones or areas of gradual change
  • Climate can be classified into six main categories: Tropical, Mesothermal, Microthermal, Polar, Highland, and Dry

Climatic Regions - Subcategories

  • Tropical Climates

    • Occupy ~36% of Earth's total surface
    • Located between ~20°N/S around the equator
    • Winterless climates produced by consistent insolation.
    • Subcategories determined by the dominance of the ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone)
    • Tropical rain forest, Tropical savanna, Tropical monsoon

  • Tropical Climates - Tropical Rain Forest

    • Constantly moist and warm.
    • The ITCZ is present all year, causing high precipitation.
    • Notable water surpluses power rivers (e.g., Amazon, Congo).
    • Dense tree canopy created by evergreen broadleaf trees.

  • Tropical Climates - Tropical Monsoon

    • Features a dry season that lasts ~1 month or longer.
    • Wet season lasts for ~6 months or more when the ITCZ is present.
    • Often located along the coast, influenced by seasonal wind variations.

  • Tropical Climates - Tropical Savanna

    • Features a pronounced dry season when a water budget deficit develops
    • Wet season lasts for ~6 months or less since the ITCZ is present for a shorter duration
    • Land cover consists of grasslands and scattered trees.

  • Mesothermal Climates

    • Describe warm and temperate climates where true seasonality begins.
    • Highly variable weather due to air mass interactions.
    • Humid subtropical, hot-summer
    • Humid subtropical, winter dry
    • Marine West Coast
    • Mediterranean

  • Mesothermal Climates - Humid Subtropical Hot Summer

    • Influenced by mT air masses during summer, enabling convective showers.
    • Midlatitude cyclones produce precipitation in fall, winter, and spring.
    • These two mechanisms provide steady precipitation year round.

  • Mesothermal Climates - Humid Subtropical Dry Winter

    • Influenced by winter dry phase of the monsoon, with summer months receiving ~10x more precipitation than the driest winter month.
    • Typically located poleward of tropical savanna climate.

  • Mesothermal Climates - Marine West Coast

    • Feature mild winters and cool summers.
    • Moderating influence of water.
    • Regions dominated by mP air masses; thus severe weather is less common.

  • Mesothermal Climates - Mediterranean

    • Receive at least 70% of annual precipitation during the winter months due to subtropical high pressure.
    • A water balance deficit develops during the summer.

  • Microthermal Climates

    • Cool to cold climates poleward of mesothermal climates.
    • Located primarily in the Northern Hemisphere.
    • Lack of sizable land masses in the Southern Hemisphere.
    • More extreme seasonality.
    • Humid continental, hot summers
    • Humid continental, mild summers
    • Subarctic, cool summer
    • Subarctic, cold winter

  • Microthermal Climates - Humid Continental Hot

    • Warmest summers within the microthermal class.
    • Summer mT air masses influence precipitation.
    • Pervasive climate type in the Midwest.

  • Microthermal Climates - Humid Continental Mild

    • Slightly cooler summers and located farther toward the poles.
    • Lower precipitation overall, but heavier snowfall is important for soil moisture recharge.

  • Microthermal Climates - Subarctic Cool Summer

    • Cover vast stretches of Canada, Alaska, and Russia.
    • Low precipitation, but also low potential evapotranspiration, so soils are generally moist and support forests.
    • Average monthly temperatures are below freezing for ~7 months.

  • Microthermal Climates - Subarctic Cold Winter

    • Occur only in Russia.
    • Extreme continentality contributes to some of the largest annual temperature ranges on Earth.

  • Polar and Highland Climates

    • Experience no true summer; temperatures are too cold to allow for tree growth
    • Low sun altitude throughout the year or high elevation.
    • Low precipitation, so regions are frozen deserts.
    • Tundra
    • Ice Cap and Ice Sheet.

  • Dry Climates

    • Water demand exceeds precipitation, creating permanent water deficits.
    • The degree of deficit helps differentiate between deserts (bigger deficit) and steppes (smaller deficit), both dominated by subtropical high-pressure systems or rain shadows.
    • Tropical/Subtropical Hot Desert, Midlatitude Cold Desert, Tropical/Subtropical Hot Steppe, Midlatitude Cold Steppe.

  • Water Resources

    • Hydrology is the scientific study of water, including its global circulation, distribution, and properties, with an emphasis on water at and below Earth's surface.
    • Earth is the only planet in the solar system with significant quantities of water. 71% is water.
    • Much of Earth's water originated from outgassing.
    • Most of Earth's water resides in oceans (97.2%).
    • The remaining 2.8% is freshwater.
    • Ice sheets and glaciers contain greatest amount of freshwater.
    • Hydrologic cycle has 3 parts: Atmosphere, Surface, and Subsurface
    • Water use can be non-consumptive or consumptive.
    • Water can be polluted by point or non-point sources.
    • Clean Water Act made it illegal to discharge pollutants from a point source without a permit.

  • Ongoing and Future Water Strategies

    • Reservoirs, human-made lakes made by dams, are often used for hydroelectric power and water storage (6% of US power generation in 2015).
    • Water conservation and efficiency reduce water demand.
    • Water transfer projects can improve water dependence, like The Vista Ridge Pipeline.
    • Desalination is a potential water source but expensive and energy-intensive.
    • Knowledge Check 4 is due on Wednesday, October 9th, at 11:30 AM.

  • Weather Systems

    • Meteorology is the scientific study of the atmosphere's physical characteristics, motions, and linkages with other Earth systems. Weather is short-term, day-to-day conditions in the atmosphere.
    • Weather is created by colliding air masses with different temperatures and moisture characteristics.
    • Air masses take on characteristics of their source regions. Types include maritime polar, continental arctic, continental polar, maritime tropical, and continental tropical.
    • There are three types of Lifting Mechanisms: Convergent, Convectional, and Orographic.
    • Frontal Lifting happens when colder air bumps into warmer air and forces warmer air to rise.
    • Midlatitude cyclones are organized around low pressure. They have life cycle stages
      • Cyclogenesis
      • Mature
      • Occluded
      • Dissipating
    • Thunderstorms are turbulent weather with lightning and thunder. They are frequently in areas with mT air masses.
    • Single-cell thunderstorms have three distinct stages based on the air movement patterns: Cumulus, Mature, and Dissipating
    • Tornado formation starts with a supercell thunderstorm having very strong rotating updrafts. Rotation speed increases as the rotating cylinder gets vertically stretched.
    • Tornado strength is estimated on the Enhanced Fujita scale.
    • Tropical cyclones are rotating low-pressure systems that originate over warm tropical waters.
    • Hurricanes have three distinct parts: Eye, Eyewall, and Outer Rainbands. They are propelled by warm ocean waters.

  • Climate Change

    • Paleoclimatology is the study of past climates using proxy methods rather than direct measurements to date climates.

    • Paleoclimates can be studied using oxygen isotopes (16O and 18O), ice cores, and ocean sediment cores.

    • The study of past and current climates allows for the study of climate change over time.

    • Natural climate fluctuations include solar output (sunspot cycles), Milankovitch cycles (eccentricity, precession and tilt of Earth's axis), atmospheric composition (volcanic eruptions), and continental rearrangement.

    • Positive feedback mechanisms can accelerate climate change. Examples are ice-albedo, water vapor, and permafrost feedbacks.

    • The carbon cycle is linked to climate change. Carbon sources that release carbon and carbon sinks that store carbon have links to climate change, as well as greenhouse gases.

    • Modern Climate Change shows changes in temperatures, sea ice, glacial ice, and sea levels over the last 100 years, which can be attributed to increasing anthropogenic greenhouse gases.

  • Addressing Climate Change

    • Mitigation (preventing climate change) includes renewable energy sources, encouraging reforestation (Paris Agreement-2015), and geoengineering interventions.
    • Adaptation (accepting climate change as real) includes emergency response plans, and strengthening infrastructures (e.g., seawalls).

  • Reminders

    • Knowledge Check 5 is due Wednesday, October 16th at 11:30 AM.
    • Test 2 is on Wednesday, October 16th and requires ParScore, a pencil, and an ID.
    • No class on October 7th.

  • The Dynamic Planet

    • Geology is the study of Earth's composition, internal structure, surface features, and the mechanisms acting on them. Plate tectonics are a branch of geology.

  • Questions for Today

    • Guiding principles of geologic time, structure of Earth's interior, rock types and how they are formed, and how plates move

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