Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• Section I contains events and processes

Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, made four prints in 1848 that visualized a world of "democratic and social Republics"
• The series depicts people of Europe and America marching and paying homage to the Statue of Liberty
• 1848 imagery recalls the French Revolution artists who personified Liberty as a female figure bearing the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man
• The image foreground lies in shattered remains of absolutist institutions
• Sorrieu’s utopian vision groups the world's people into distinct nations with flags and costumes
• The United States and Switzerland lead the procession as established nation-states
• France, identifiable by the revolutionary tricolor, has just reached the statue, followed by the German people with a black, red, and gold flag
• In 1848, the German people were not yet a united nation; the flag was a liberal expression toward unifying German principalities under a democratic constitution
• The peoples of Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia follow the German peoples
• Christ, saints, and angels are gazing from above to symbolize fraternity.
• Nationalism emerged in the nineteenth century and brought sweeping changes to Europe’s political and mental landscape
• A modern state has a centralized power exercising control over a defined territory, which contrasts with the multi-national dynastic empires.
• A nation-state is marked by the majority of its citizens, not just its rulers, developing a shared identity, history, or descent
• Ernst Renan outlined his understanding of what makes a nation, arguing that a nation is not formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory
• According to Renan, a heroic past, common glories, and the will to perform great deeds together are essential for a people to form a nation
• Renan views a nation as a large-scale solidarity, with its existence being a daily plebiscite (direct vote)
• Renan argues that a nation should not annex or hold a country against its will and that the existence of nations is a guarantee of liberty

French Revolution

• Nationalism was expressed in the French Revolution of 1789
• France in 1789 was a territorial state ruled by a monarch
• PostRevolution, sovereignty shifted from the monarchy to French Citizens
• The revolution declared that the people would constitute the nation and determine its destiny
• The French revolutionaries introduced measures to create collective identity among the French People
• Ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) highlighted a united community with equal constitutional rights
• The new French Flag (tricolour) replaced the royal standard
• The Estates General was replaced by National Assembly composed of active citizens
• New hymns were composed, oaths were taken, martyrs were commemorated, all in the name of the nation
• A centralized administration made uniform laws for all citizens
• Internal customs duties were abolished and a uniform system of weights and measures were adopted
• Regional dialects were discouraged and French became the common language
• Revolutionaries aimed to help other peoples of Europe become nations
• Students and educated middle classes formed Jacobin clubs, which prepared for French armies moving into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s
• French armies began carrying the idea of nationalism abroad
• Napoleon introduced reforms to territories under his control
• Although Napoleon destroyed democracy in France through a return to Monarchy, in the administrative field he incorporated revolutionary principles
• The Civil Code of 1804, known as the Napoleonic Code, abolished privileges based on birth, made all equal before the law, and enabled right to property
• The code was exported to regions under French control
• In Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany, Napoleon simplified administration, abolished feudal systems, and freed peasants from serfdom
• Guild restrictions were removed in Towns and transportation and communications were improved
• Businessmen and small-scale producers benefited from new freedom brought by Napoleon
• Some areas had a mixed reaction to being conquered, initially welcoming the French armies as ushering in liberty, but later turning hostile, as administrative arrangements didn't go hand and hand with political freedom
• Increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription into the French armies outweighed the advantages of the administrative changes
• Customs duties of 5% were imposed, levied by weight/measurement, caused time consuming calculations
• An elle could vary in size
• New commercial classes sought economic unification, such as a unified economic territory allowing unhindered movement of goods and capital
• The zollverein, or customs union, was formed in 1834 at the initiative of Prussia and eliminated tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies to two
• Railways stimulated mobility and economic interests linked to national unification, strengthening wider nationalist sentiments.

Conservatism

• After Napoleon's defeat, European Governments were driven by a spirit of conservatism, believing established, traditional institutions of state and society — like the monarchy, Church, social hierarchies, property, and the family — should be preserved
• Conservatives realized that that modernization could strengthen traditional institutions, so they were modernized
• A modern army, an efficient bureaucracy, a dynamic economy, and the abolition of feudalism/serfdom could strengthen monarchies of Europe
• In 1815, European powers met at Vienna to settle Europe, hosted by Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich.
• The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 aimed to reverse changes made in Europe during the Napoleonic Wars
• France lost territories and the Bourbon dynasty was restored to power
• States were set up to prevent future French expansion
• Prussia received new territories and Austria was given control of northern Italy, while the German confederation of 39 states remained intact
• The East; Russia was given part of Poland and Prussia was given a portion of Saxony. The goal was to restore monarchies and create a new conservative order
• Conservative regimes were autocratic and did not tolerate criticism/dissent; sought to curb activities that questioned the legitimacy of autocratic governments
• Censorship laws were imposed to control liberty and freedom thoughts

Revolutionaries

• The fear of repression after 1815 drove liberal-nationalists underground and formed secret societies to train revolutionaries and spread ideas
• Being revolutionary meant commitment to oppose monarchical forms established after the Vienna Congress and to fight for liberty/freedom
• These revolutionaries wanted nation-states
• Giuseppe Mazzini was born in Genoa in 1805,joined the Carbonari and was exiled in 1831 for attempting revolution in Liguria
• Mazzini Formed Young Italy in Marseilles and Young Europe in Berne. Members came from Poland, France, Italy, and the German states
• Mazzini believed God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind, so Italy had to unify into a single republic within a wider alliance of nations as the basis of Italian liberty
• Secret societies were formed in Germany, France, Switzerland, and Poland, following Mazzini's Model
• Mazzini’s opposition to monarchy and his democratic republics vision frightened conservatives
• Metternich described Mazzini the most dangerous element of the social world.

The Age of Revolutions

• As conservative regimes tried to consolidate power, liberalism and nationalism became associated with revolution in Italian and German states plus the Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland
• These revolutions were led by the liberal-nationalists among the educated middle class such as professors, schoolteachers, clerks and members of the commercial middle classes
• The Bourbon kings were overthrown by liberal revolutionaries and replaced by a constitutional monarchy with Louis Philippe at its head
• Then Belgium broke away from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands
• The Greek war of independence mobilized nationalist feelings among the educated elite
• Greece had been part of the Ottoman Empire since the fifteenth century
• Revolutionary nationalism led to a struggle for independence among Greeks, which began in 1821
• Greek Nationalists got support from Greeks and Western Europeans
• Poets and artists praised Greece as cradle of civilization
• Lord Byron organized funds, fought in war, and died of fever in 1824
• The Treaty of Constantinople in 1832 recognized Greece as independence

Romanticism

• Development of nationalism occurred through wars/territorial expansion
• Culture played a big role with art, poetry, stories, and music
• Romanticism, a cultural movement, tried to create a nationalist sentiment
• Romantic artists and poets rejected reason and science, emphasized intuition, emotion and mystical feelings
• Effort was to create a shared collective heritage and common cultural past as a basis of a nation.
• Romantics claimed true German culture can be found among common people through folk songs, folk poetry and folk dances of the nation
• Collecting and recording forms of folk culture became essential to nation-building

Language

• Emphasis on vernacular language/collection of local folklore was not just to recover ancient national spirit but to carry modern natonalist message mostly illiterate
• Poland was partitioned at the end of the eighteenth century by Russia, Prussia and Austria
• Despite no longer being independent, Poland national feelings had been kept alive through music and language
• Karol Kurpinski celebrated national struggle through operas/music and folk dances into nationalist symbols
• Polish was forced out of schools after Russian occupation so Polish people used their language at Church gatherings and religious instructions as resistance
• Many priests/bishops jailed/sent to Siberia for not preaching in Russian so it became a symbol of struggle.

Popular revolts

• The 1830s faced great hardship in Europe with population so there was not enough work
• As Population from rural areas increased they fled to overcrowded city slums. so producers were now faced with competition from England
• Peasants especially struggled where aristocracy still had power
• Food scarcity increased so pauperism increased
• Louis Philippe forced to flee and national workshops arose. later though weavers revolted by contractors with supplies whom had reduced prices for the raw material

Liberal Revolutions

• Poor people revolted/ middle class was underway as well that was educated
• France saw monarchy abdicated and in feb 1848 republic was based on male suffrage proclaimed
• Nation states in europe had middel class had middle class men/women. plus national utification plus press and assembly freedom
• German region had people get togher came together that middle class professions etc decide all german assembly. 831 elected in church of ST Paul and constituiton drafted
• They offered to Friedrich crown he refused
• Political rights extension was debated with women involved
• Women had their assocaitions and paper but were denied same thing as women.

Visualizing the nation

• it was easy for rulers to ahve portraits when it came to giving a face but aristist would persoify the nation
• nations women
• then the form was chosen this to be allegory of the nation in concrete
• artistrs used liberty and justice but also a republic ideals through certain items
• so same female as time went on

Symbols

• Broek chain Freed
• breastplate German with strength etc were made up.

Nationalism/imperialsim

• No longer kept but became narrow ends etc

• in europe they exploited nationalist people

• The serious forr eurpe was balkans due to etnic and region

• the slavs

• spread toger rhe ottoman empires

• Europe was a disaster in 1914 imperialsim

• in european power they started anti imperial movements