Rise of Islam and Muhammad

• The Byzantine Empire was in a major war with the Persians from 602-628 CE.
• The Byzantine victory was pyrrhic, leaving the southern border weak and vulnerable.
• This weakness facilitated the rise of Muhammad and Islam.

The Emergence of Islam

• Islam translates to "surrendering to God".
• Followers of Islam are called Muslims.
• Muslims believe in one God, Allah.
• Muhammad is considered the prophet who delivered God's word.
• Around 610 CE, Muhammad received messages from the Angel Gabriel in Mecca.
• These messages formed the Qur’an, Islam's holy book.
• Initial opposition in Mecca led Muhammad and his followers to migrate to Medina in 622 CE (the Hijra).
• The Hijra marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar

Leadership and Expansion

• Disagreements over leadership succession after Muhammad's death in 632 CE emerged.
• Some favored leadership based on wisdom (Caliphs).
• Others advocated for familial succession through Muhammad’s son-in-law, Ali.
• The Rashidun Caliphs were the first four leaders of Islam, who significantly spread its influence and built the first Muslim empire.

The Five Pillars of Islam

• Shahadah: Belief in one God (Allah) and Muhammad as His prophet.
• Salah: Performing ritual prayers five times daily.
• Zakat: Donating 2.5% of one's wealth to charity.
• Sawm: Fasting from dawn to sunset during Ramadan.
• Hajj: Making a pilgrimage to Mecca if physically and financially capable.

Internal Conflict and Dynastic Change

• The murder of the third caliph, Uthman, in 656 CE triggered the Islamic Civil War.
• Conflict arose between Muhammad’s family (Shi’a) and others (Sunni) over leadership.
• The Umayyad family gained control, moved the capital to Damascus, and ruled until 750 CE.
• The Abbasids then took over in 750 CE, shifting the capital to Baghdad and ushering in Islam's "Golden Age".
• Baghdad’s House of Wisdom fostered advancements in science, medicine, and philosophy.
• Rebellions and internal weakness led to the Abbasid's decline, ending in 1258 CE.

Sunni vs. Shi’a Divide

• Sunni Muslims believe community consensus should determine the leader.
• Shi’a Muslims believe leadership should remain within Muhammad’s family.
• This fundamental disagreement fueled substantial conflict in early Islam.

The Post-Roman West

• People generally agree the Roman Empire ended in 476 CE, when Odoacer became King of Italy.
• After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Western society underwent significant transformation due to the mixing of different groups of people and cultures.
• Christianity became more prominent
• Some Roman traditions persisted.

Germanic Kingdoms

• Germanic Kingdoms replaced Roman rule, deemed "barbarian" by Romans due to differing customs.
• Leadership in these tribes was often determined through warfare rather than strict rules.
• Society was largely agrarian with women managing farms and households, while men held dominant power.
• While initially polytheistic, many tribes later converted to Christianity.

Notable Leaders and Dynasties

• Theodoric the Great a king of the Ostrogoths, collaborated with Roman leaders and initiated building repairs.
• Suspicion of Catholics led to their persecution later in his reign.
• The Franks, led by Clovis I, became a successful Germanic tribe.
• Clovis I's conversion to Christianity provided him with Catholic Church support.
• The Carolingian Dynasty succeeded the Merovingians, with Pépin le Bref becoming the first Carolingian king.
• Pépin le Bref granted land to the Pope, forming the Papal States.
• Charlemagne expanded the empire, promoted Christianity, and improved education.
• Crowned "Emperor of the Romans" by the Pope, angering the Byzantine Empire.
• After Charlemagne's death, the empire was divided via the Treaty of Verdun, weakening its structure.

Invasions and Instability

• Following the fall of Charlemagne’s empire, West Franks, Lotharingia, and East Franks emerged.
• Magyars from Hungary, Islamic groups, and Vikings raided and pillaged the weakened empire.
• Vikings established trade routes reaching Kyiv and Constantinople before eventually converting to Christianity.

Medieval Europe and Feudalism

• Feudalism defined the organization of medieval society.
• Kings owned all the land.
• Lords received land from kings in exchange for loyalty.
• Knights protected the land and peasants.
• Peasants worked the land
• Serfs were bound to the land, akin to slaves.
• The Church was outside the feudal system but collected tithes.

The Manor System

• Lords resided in manors, controlling land and peasants in a self-sufficient system
• Manor System served as an important system of economic and social organization in medieval Europe.

Slave Soldiers During Islamic Expansion

• Mamluks were slave soldiers from Central Asia and the Caucasus, forcibly converted to Islam and trained for military service.
• They could rise in status through loyalty and merit, with many wielding significant power, especially in Egypt.
• Around 1250 CE, the Mamluks established their own kingdom known as the Mamluk Sultanate

The Emirate of Al-Andalus (Spain)

• In 711 CE, Umayyad Muslims from North Africa conquered southern Spain.
• Northern Spain remained under Christian control.
• The capital in Córdoba became a center for trade, learning, and art, introducing advancements in mathematics, architecture, philosophy, and scholarship.
• Muslim rule ended in 1492 with the Christian Reconquista.

The Fatimid Caliphate (North Africa)

• Claiming descent from Muhammad’s daughter Fatima, the Fatimids conquered Egypt, established Cairo as their capital, and controlled Mecca.
• They rivaled the Abbasid Caliphate but were tolerant of other religions.

The Seljuk Empire (Central Asia)

• The Seljuks, Turkic nomads from Central Asia, embraced Islam and conquered vast territories, including parts of India and Anatolia.
• Posed a threat to the Byzantine Empire.
• The Seljuks defended Sunni Islam, invested in infrastructure, and took control of the Abbasid Caliphate.
• They seized Jerusalem and Mecca from the Fatimids.
• They eventually fragmented into smaller groups.

Laying the Groundwork for Division

• Christianity Divided with Western (Roman Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) branches drifting apart Starting around 440 CE
• Pope Leo I asserted papal supremacy.
• Pope Gregory I dispatched missionaries to Britain and Spain.
• The crowning of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in 800 CE angered the Byzantine Empire.

Cloistered Christianity

• Monasticism fostered meditation, prayer, and the preservation of ancient texts and knowledge.
• Also provided women with opportunities beyond family life

Byzantines Before the Crusades

• From 867-1025 CE, The Byzantine Empire experienced a period of cultural and economic prosperity known as the Macedonian Renaissance.
• Internal issues and Western European trade led to a decline.

The Battle of Manzikert

• The Battle of Manzikert was a major defeat weakened the Byzantines, leading to territorial losses and internal revolts

The Call for Help

• Byzantine Emperor Alexios I sought assistance from Pope Urban II.
• This request eventually led to the Crusades

The End of Carolingian Rule

• The Carolingian Empire divided into East Francia, West Francia, and Lotharingia in the 9th century.
• Conflicts between the Catholic Church and local rulers arose.
• German rulers sought to control the church, leading to simony (the buying of church positions).
• The Cluniac Reform sought to empower the Church and enforce rules, such as priestly celibacy.
• Tensions culminated in the Great Schism of 1054, splitting the Church into Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic factions.

Pope Urban II & the Council of Claremont

• Byzantine Emperor Alexios I requested help from Pope Urban II against the Seljuk Turks.
• Pope Urban II called for a Crusade (holy war) to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim control, garnering support from European leaders and Christians.

The Crusading Movement: God, Gold, and Glory

• The Crusades marked the initial use of the term "Holy War" justifying wars waged in the name of God.
• Younger sons, disadvantaged by primogeniture, often joined the Crusades.
• Common people, along with women and the infirm, participated in the Crusades seeking potential gains.

Importance of Jerusalem

• Jerusalem holds religious significance for Jews, Christians, and Muslims.
• Jews view it as the site of their Second Temple.
• Christians recognize it as the location of Jesus's tomb, and Muslims recognize it as the location of the Al-Aqsa Mosque.
• The destruction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre by a Muslim caliph in the 11th century incited the First Crusade.

The First Crusade

• Peter the Hermit’s initial attempt failed.
• European aristocrats joined the campaign.
• Crusaders assisted Alexios I in exchange for conquered lands.
• In 1099, Crusaders captured Jerusalem, resulting in mass killings.

After the First Crusade

• Four Crusader States formed in the Middle East: Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem.
• Infighting between Crusader leaders led to their eventual defeat by the Muslims

The Second Crusade (1147-1149 CE)

• Led by Bernard of Clairvaux, King Louis VII, and King Conrad III.
• The Crusade ultimately failed due to defeat by the Seljuks in Anatolia.
• Saladin recaptured Jerusalem from the Crusaders in 1187.

The Third Crusade

• Kings from England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire embarked on a campaign to retake Jerusalem but faced internal disputes.
• King Richard I and Saladin signed a treaty allowing Christian access to Jerusalem.

Life During the Crusades

• Differences between European and Middle Eastern Christians fostered distrust.
• European rulers adopted local customs and tolerated Jews and Muslims to obtain workers.
• Trade flourished, especially for cities like Venice and Genoa, introducing luxury goods to Europe and inspiring explorers like Marco Polo.

The Fourth Crusade (1202 CE)

• Diverting from its original purpose, the Fourth Crusade attacked Zara.
• This resulted in excommunication by the Pope.
• Crusaders sacked Constantinople, establishing the Latin Empire but failing to reach the Holy Land.

Crusades 5 to 8

• Subsequent Crusades lacked focus and popularity, occurring outside the Holy Land in regions like Egypt and the Baltic States and targeting heretics.
• The Pope's authority waned, causing the Crusading movement decreased as new Islamic empires expanded.

South Asia in the Early Middle Ages

• Hinduism and Buddhism were the prominent religions in India.
• Buddhism spread along the Silk Roads.
• Alexander the Great introduced Greek ideas to India.
• The Mauryan Empire lost control of India after Chandragupta Maurya's death.
• The Thanesar kingdom, which was Buddhist controlled the area.
• Islam expanded into India.
• Umayyad Muslims clashed with Sindh rulers.
• Mahmud of Ghazna invaded India, establishing the Ghaznavid Empire.
• Muhammad Ghur defeated the Rajputs, starting the Delhi Sultanate.

Islam Expands into India

• Islam spread into northern India.
• Buddhism declined in India.
• Hinduism saw increased individuation, and the caste system divided society.
• Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants, farmers), Shudras (laborers), and Dalits (untouchables)
• Dharma dictates actions based on caste, karma influences future lives, and moksha represents freedom from reincarnation.

Families in Hindu India

• Extended families lived and worked together
• Cows were sacred
• Most people ate grains
• Society was patriarchal.
• Women were expected to follow their husbands.
• Sati was a tragic practice where widows immolated themselves on their husband's funeral pyre.

Late Gupta Developments

• Land was granted to officials, temples, and monasteries.
• Shipbuilding and textile manufacturing technologies advances.
• Hindus, Buddhists, and Muslims exchanged ideas.

East-West Interactions in the Early Middle Ages

• Trade and Islam’s Spread in South and Southeast Asia
• The Abbasid Caliphate relocated its capital to Baghdad to oversee trade in the Indian Ocean.
• Increased Muslim trade with Southeast Asia, the Spice Islands, and East Africa led to conversion
• Growing port cities served as trade hubs
• People began converting to Islam

The Chola Kingdom (970-1300)

• A Hindu kingdom
• The Chola Kingdom controlled trade in the Palk Strait.
• Utilized Dhow ships and Lateen sails for trade.
• The Golden Age of the Chola Empire saw temple construction, monument building, and the writing of literature like the Ramavataram.

The Srivijaya Empire (600-1260)

• A maritime empire in Southeast Asia influenced by Buddhist and Hindu cultures.
• Controlled trade between India and China through the Strait of Malacca, levying taxes and combating piracy.
• Muslim traders greatly influenced the Srivijaya Empire, leading to increased conversions to Islam.

Swahili City-States in East Africa

• Aksum, a Christian kingdom, controlled Red Sea trade but was surrounded by Muslim states.
• The Swahili people spread their Bantu language, culture, and traditions along the East African coast.
• They traded in gold, ivory, and slaves along the Indian Ocean.

Great Zimbabwe

• Was an important trading center on the Swahili Coast.
• They traded shells, ceramics, coins, gold, and ivory.
• The society was patriarchal, with class divisions between rich and poor.
• The Zanj Rebellion reduced the East African slave trade.