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Questions and Answers

Compared to tricyclic antidepressants, SSRIs:

  • are markedly less effective in managing symptoms
  • have fewer side effects (correct)
  • are markedly more effective in managing symptoms
  • have more side effects

    • The purpose of pleasant activity scheduling is to:

  • decrease engagement in negative activities
  • decrease reliance on medication
  • improve mood (correct)
  • improve sleep

    • Interpersonal psychotherapy focuses on interpersonal problems that may trigger or ________ a depressive episode.

    maintain

    As the symptoms of depression can negatively impact social interactions, this can lead to greater social ______.

    <p>isolation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychodynamic therapists assist a client to gain insight into the ______ that underpin their depressive symptoms.

    <p>conflicts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Relapse-prevention training in _______ focuses on managing future triggers for depressive episodes.

    <p>CBT</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The use of ECT is usually reserved for the treatment of _______ depressive disorders.

    <p>severe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prevention programs for depression have been found to be most effective when the targeted group:

    <p>has some risk of developing depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the ABC model, activating events trigger dysfunctional __________, which result in negative consequences.

    <p>beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    IPT targets ________ that maintain or exacerbate factors contributing to depression.

    <p>maladaptive interpersonal skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Many empirically validated methods of relapse prevention for depression are based on ______ principles.

    <p>CBT</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most interventions to prevent depression teach skills in which areas?

    <p>interpersonal skills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    CBT interventions for depression usually begin with _________ activity scheduling.

    <p>pleasant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prevention programs for depression that are directed towards all members of a population have shown __________ effects.

    <p>inconsistent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Persistent depressive disorder was previously referred to as ________ disorder.

    <p>dysthymic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In community samples, suicidal ideation is approximately ____ times more common than completed suicides.

    <p>10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Contemporary theories of depression have implicated abnormalities in the number and sensitivity of __________ available to take up neurotransmitters.

    <p>receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The depressive _________ style is one that interprets negative life events as being due to internal, stable, and global factors.

    <p>attributional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The family communication style of _____________ is typified by high levels of criticism, hostility and over/under involvement.

    <p>expressed emotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Repetitive ___________ magnetic stimulation is a non-pharmacological treatment for depressive disorders.

    <p>transcranial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within interpersonal psychotherapy, key target areas for treatment include:

    <p>grief from loss</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Australian researchers have found that approximately 20% of individuals who experience depression meet criteria by the age of ______ years.

    <p>25</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ivy has been diagnosed with a pathological grief reaction, plus depressive disorder. She is likely to be experiencing what symptoms that differentiate this from normal grief?

    <p>inappropriate guilt and self-criticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following have been proposed to explain the higher prevalence of depression in female, as opposed to male, adolescents?

    <p>body dissatisfaction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Approximately ______% of depressed individuals hospitalised for their disorder successfully complete suicide.

    <p>15</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals carrying one or two copies of the short 5-HTTLPT allele have been shown to exhibit higher levels of ________ in response to stressful life events.

    <p>neuroticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    John Cade was an Australian ___________ who found lithium carbonate to be an effective approach for the management of bipolar disorder.

    <p>psychiatrist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A primary difference between depressive and bipolar disorders is that individuals with bipolar disorders experience pathologically:

    <p>elevated mood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within manic episodes, individuals demonstrate an increase in:

    <p>activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The key features for diagnosis of bipolar II disorder are the presence of one or more:

    <p>major depressive episodes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Differential diagnosis between bipolar disorders and psychotic disorders is challenging due to:

    <p>shared features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term 'bipolar disorder' was coined by:

    <p>Karl Leonhard</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is estimated that in Australia, the prevalence of bipolar over the lifetime is approximately:

    <p>1.3%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within the DSM-5, the term 'bipolar disorder' embraces a spectrum of disorders including:

    <p>cyclothymic disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following individuals is least likely to experience their first episode of hypomania?

    <p>Erin, aged 33</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following features are absent in hypomanic episodes?

    <p>delusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Approximately what percentage of bipolar sufferers will relapse within five years?

    <p>75</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals who repeatedly experience sub-clinical levels of elevated and depressed mood would most likely be diagnosed with _____________

    <p>cyclothymia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The comorbidity between anxiety and bipolar disorders may be:

    <p>higher than that between anxiety and depressive disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have suggested that individuals with borderline personality disorder may be misdiagnosed with having which bipolar disorder?

    <p>bipolar II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The prevalence of bipolar I disorder:

    <p>is equal in males and females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is thought that individuals with bipolar disorder use substances such as marijuana, alcohol, and amphetamines in an attempt to:

    <p>regulate mood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following individuals is most likely to experience the poorest outcomes associated with their bipolar disorder diagnosis?

    <p>Jeffrey who demonstrated onset of the disorder at age 17</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of psychotherapy has proven the most effective in the treatment of OCD?

    <p>Cognitive-behavioural therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Among OCD patients who take medications, approximately _______% report complete relief from their symptoms and _______% report no relief at all.

    <p>20, 20</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Among those who complete a full course of cognitive-behavioural therapy, approximately _______ report a reduction in their symptoms.

    <p>50-80%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The three essential aspects of an effective treatment program for OCD include all of the following EXCEPT _____.

    <p>Family therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a feature of cognitive-behavioural therapy for OCD?

    <p>Progressive muscle relaxation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People have some degree of choice regarding their compulsions.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Obsessions are recurrent and persistent thoughts, impulses or images that are experienced as intrusive, inappropriate or distressing.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Any excessive worry can be called an obsession, whether or not the person recognizes that it is a product of his or her own mind.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Compulsions are always linked to obsessions because the compulsive behaviour must have the aim of reducing or preventing anxiety before they can be called compulsions.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Compulsions are repetitive behaviours or mental routines.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Compulsions are always the result of an obsession.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Obsessions can be excessive worries about real life problems.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In systematic desensitization: a person reverses the process of classical conditioning.

    <p>A person 'gets in touch' with the stimuli that cause him to become fearful.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a symptom of PTSD?

    <p>Depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _____ is part of the cognitive component of therapy for PTSD.

    <p>Challenging irrational beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Exposure therapy is effective for treating both _____ and ______.

    <p>Simple phobia; PTSD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A person is experiencing __________ when they feel detached from those around them.

    <p>Emotional numbing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which form of therapy is most effective for depression?

    <p>Drug therapy and psychotherapy produce the same rate of initial recovery but psychotherapy is better at preventing remissions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not one of the techniques used by cognitive-behaviourists to help people think more rationally about their condition?

    <p>Confront your nemesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a concern associated with ECT?

    <p>It takes too long for it to provide relief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was not listed as a form of treatment for depression?

    <p>Exposure therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a feature of depression?

    <p>Muscle tension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________ percent of Americans will experience bipolar disorder in their lifetimes.

    <p>One to two</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Medications such as lithium are able to reduce the symptoms of bipolar disorder in about _______ percent of the cases.

    <p>Are able to reduce the symptoms of bipolar disorder in about 40 percent of the cases.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is TRUE?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a behavioral characteristic of mania?

    <p>Hypervigilance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    At what age does bipolar disorder most frequently emerge?

    <p>Late adolescence and early adulthood (ages 17 to 24)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a psychiatrist tell the difference between a person with a lot of energy and a person who is in a manic state?

    <p>It is a subjective decision in which the therapist compares the client's behaviour to his normal level of activity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If bipolar disorder is left untreated, then ________.

    <p>The condition worsens and the duration of the cycles become shorter.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'diathesis' in the diathesis-stress model of bipolar disorder?

    <p>A biological vulnerability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    True or false? Bipolar disorders are thought to be the result of a circadian system which is highly sensitive to disruption.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is correct about the diathesis-stress model as it relates to the causes of bipolar disorders? (Select all that apply)

    <p>According to the diathesis-stress model, shift work or travelling across time zones or stimulating social events can all disrupt the circadian system, and trigger a manic episode.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Obsessions can include recurrent (Select all that apply):

    <p>Images</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Almost any ___________ can become a compulsion, even when there is no logical link between it and the prevention of harm.

    <p>behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It has been suggested by authors of the Epidemiology Catchment Study that OCD is the _______ most common psychiatric condition across the world.

    <p>Fourth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Behavioural _________ are complex sets of behaviours choreographed for specific situations, such as checking.

    <p>Macros</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cognitive theorists suggest that __________ may mediate some compulsive behaviours.

    <p>Fear of death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A key difference between obsessions and ordinary thoughts is that, with regard to obsessions, the person must:

    <p>Try to ignore them without success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have demonstrated that approximately ____% of individuals suffering from OCD and treated with CBT principles demonstrate and maintain significant improvements.

    <p>75</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have demonstrated obsessive-compulsive disorder to have one of the most __________ presentations between individuals with the same disorder.

    <p>Diverse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Brian has ongoing difficulties with getting rid of possessions, even those that are damaged and useless. His house is overflowing with items, but he cannot cope with the idea of decluttering. Brian would likely be diagnosed with ________ disorder.

    <p>Hoarding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It has been suggested that up to _____% of adult sufferers of OCD recall symptom onset before 18 years of age.

    <p>80</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with body dysmorphic disorder frequently engage in (Select all that apply):

    <p>Excessive reassurance seeking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the neuropsychological model, OCD results from a failure of inhibitory pathways in the ____.

    <p>Basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    __________ involves recurrent pulling out of one's own hair, with hair loss as a result.

    <p>Trichotillomania</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Proponents of the cognitive model of OCD suggest that all people suffer from intrusive thoughts; however, individuals with OCD:

    <p>Emphasise them</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________ disorder is often seen as a comorbid condition in those with OCD or trichotillomania.

    <p>Excoriation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Danger ideation reduction therapy (DIRT) can be a useful treatment approach for OCD sufferers who:

    <p>Refuse to engage in exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with hoarding disorder frequently experience:

    <p>Health and safety risks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychological treatments for OCD-related disorders generally include (Select all that apply):

    <p>Cognitive restructuring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Evidence suggests that up to _____% of individuals seeking cosmetic surgery meet criteria for body dysmorphic disorder.

    <p>15</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The 12-month prevalence of trichotillomania is approximately __________%.

    <p>1-2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is estimated that up to _______% of excoriation disorder sufferers are female.

    <p>75</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Medications that increase the availability of the neurotransmitter ________ are widely used in the treatment of OCD-related disorders.

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The media extensively documented Michael Jackson's seeming obsession with changing his appearance. If this behaviour was due to perceived defects in appearance, it is possible he was suffering from which disorder?

    <p>Body dysmorphic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Someone with no insight into the unreality of their obsessive-compulsive beliefs may be difficult to differentiate from someone with a ________ illness/disorder.

    <p>psychotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Approximately ____ of OCD sufferers benefit from pharmacotherapy.

    <p>40-60</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Males with body dysmorphic disorder are likely to experience distressing thoughts regarding their (Select all that apply):

    <p>Nose</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prior to the DSM-5, obsessive-compulsive disorder was conceptualised as a __________ disorder.

    <p>anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Two of the most common compulsions experienced by individuals with obsessive-compulsive disorder are:

    <p>Washing and checking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is suggested that OCD is a relatively common disorder, with prevalence rates of approximately:

    <p>2-3%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lifetime prevalence rate of excoriation disorder is approximately _______% .

    <p>1.5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A key difference between exposure response prevention (ERP) and behavioural experiment approaches to treating OCD is that:

    <p>ERP approaches target both obsessions and compulsions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The most common regions targeted by sufferers of trichotillomania are (Select all that apply):

    <p>Eyelashes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The treatment with the strongest evidence base for managing social anxiety disorder is:

    <p>Cognitive behaviour therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Negative cognitions in causing mental disorders is:

    <p>correlational</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Physiological arousal is lower when people worry:

    <p>In thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Humanistic views of human experience are epitomised by ________.

    <p>optimism or hope</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Despite the diversity of worries in the context of GAD, most can be categorized as relating to:

    <p>Social threat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following perspectives on mental disorders emphasises the role of biases and selective attention in causing distress?

    <p>Cognitive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Self-actualisation depends largely upon:

    <p>The amount of unconditional positive regard received during childhood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The intolerance of uncertainty model argues that people with GAD will:

    <p>Attempt to control situations with uncertain outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    GAD frequently co-occurs with:

    <p>Personality disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cognitive-behavioural perspective increased in popularity beginning in which decade?

    <p>1970s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A primary limitation of medication use in treating GAD is:

    <p>A return of symptoms once medication is ceased</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rogers labelled his therapeutic approach as _______ therapy.

    <p>person-centred</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach to the treatment of mental disorders best exemplifies the scientist-practitioner model?

    <p>Cognitive-Behavioural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In support of the information processing model of GAD, sufferers:

    <p>Interpret ambiguous scenarios as threatening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Unconditional positive regard refers to:

    <p>Being non-judgmental</p> Signup and view all the answers

    CBT approaches to generalized anxiety disorder focus on:

    <p>Factors that maintain symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cognitive-behaviourists argue that negative cognitions play a ________ role in such disorders.

    <p>maintaining</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Negative meta-beliefs are an example of Wells' 'Type 1' worry:

    <p>They discriminate between GAD and other forms of anxiety</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorists are NOT associated with the humanistic perspective? (Select more than one)

    <p>Jung (Psychodynamic)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which alternative approach to treating GAD has been found to result in improved outcomes compared to CBT?

    <p>Mindfulness meditation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which perspective on human behaviour emphasises individuality, choice, and optimism?

    <p>Humanistic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Worrying in thoughts is less distressing than processing emotional images according to Barkovec and colleagues:

    <p>It is less distressing than processing emotional images</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intolerance of uncertainty is argued to interact with:

    <p>Positive meta-beliefs about worry</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A humanist would describe Rasheed as ________.

    <p>self-actualised</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychologists have a social ____________ to shape social change.

    <p>responsibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Due to concerns with tolerance and dependence, _________ are not considered the prescription of choice for GAD.

    <p>benzodiazepines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the humanistic approach, abnormal behaviour results from:

    <p>Thwarted self-actualisation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The technique of worry exposure is often used in treating GAD when the source of worry:

    <p>Is objectively distressing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The integrative approach to mental disorders is essentially a variant of which theory/model?

    <p>Diathesis-Stress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In mindfulness meditation, people learn to _________ their worries.

    <p>observe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For therapeutic change to occur, the client must be in a state of _________ and the therapist in a state of __________.

    <p>incongruence; congruence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these does not typically form part of cognitive-behavioural treatment?

    <p>Dream analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within Australia, the DSM is the _______ classification system used for the diagnosis of mental disorders.

    <p>primary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not one of the reasons experts have proposed a dimensional system of classification for the DSM-5?

    <p>Psychiatric disorders are separate and independent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    With reference to Wakefield's 'harmful dysfunction' analysis of mental disorders, what does the word 'dysfunction' refer to?

    <p>Where a psychological process has failed to carry out its natural function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identify the correct order in which theories on human behaviour were developed, from the earliest to the most recent:

    <p>Biological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The risk of health professionals contributing to, rather than reducing, distress is recognised within which perspective?

    <p>Sociocultural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychoanalysts believe that defence mechanisms operate by:

    <p>Distorting impulses into acceptable forms or making them unconscious</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prior to the twentieth century, the concept of mental illness was virtually identical to the concept of:

    <p>Insanity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The integrative, or ___________ approach to mental disorders holds that human behaviour can be explained by a combination of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors.

    <p>biopsychosocial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The ICD provides an alternative __________ classification system for mental disorders.

    <p>classification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The basic principle of classical conditioning is that:

    <p>All behaviours can be explained in terms of conditioned and unconditioned responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The pattern and rates of co-occurrence among mental disorders are thought to reflect:

    <p>The existence of higher-order dimensions of psychopathology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A primary advantage of diagnostic labels is that they: (select more than one)

    <p>Increase access to resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does not form part of the definition of abnormal behaviour?

    <p>Treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Due to the influence of social values and norms, diagnostic labels have historically been used as a means of ________.

    <p>control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Among mental health professionals, a crucial element of defining dysfunctional behaviour is:

    <p>If a person's behaviour interferes with his/her ability to carry on with everyday life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The influence of family and other social structures on mental disorders is emphasised within the ________ perspective.

    <p>Sociocultural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A functional analysis of behaviour:

    <p>Describes behaviour and its environmental determinants objectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Diagnostic instability indicates that:

    <p>There are concerns regarding the validity of the current classification system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the biopsychosocial approach, human behaviour can best be explained by:

    <p>A variety of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Proponents of the dimensional model of classification argue that high degrees of comorbidity and shared symptoms between mental disorders reflect ________ underlying psychopathology.

    <p>Dimensional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Despite the manner in which they are often used by health professionals, diagnostic labels reflect:

    <p>Theoretical constructs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Emil Kraepelin classified mental disorders in terms of their:

    <p>Symptoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A primary criticism of the current diagnostic classification system is: (Select more than one)

    <p>The high degree of comorbidity between disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The key issues raised in the construction of the DSM-5 include all of the following except:

    <p>The inclusion of a psychoanalytic perspective.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not an example of a cognitive distortion?

    <p>Repressing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vulnerabilities that have been identified to increase triggering of the alarm reaction include: (Select more than one)

    <p>Psychological factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The common thread running through informational, conditioning, and vicarious acquisition of fear is the:

    <p>Expectation that aversive outcomes are probable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The behavioural perspective considers all behaviour, both normal and abnormal, as the product of:

    <p>Learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The idea that specific phobias are classically conditioned is weakened by the fact that:

    <p>All of the options listed here are correct.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Dimensions that appear important in identifying shared and unique factors across anxiety disorders are: (Select more than one)

    <p>Negative affectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In vicarious acquisition, fear is acquired by:

    <p>Observing another person responding with fear to a threat.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which classification system separates phobic from other anxiety disorders?

    <p>ICD-10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The DSM-5 specifies _____ subtypes of phobias, categorised according to the primary focus of the fear.

    <p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Barlow (2002), the hallmark of anxiety is:

    <p>False alarms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In agoraphobia, sufferers avoid being in situations where:

    <p>A panic attack may occur and escape from the situation is difficult.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fear is the immediate alarm reaction triggered by a(n):

    <p>Perceived danger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In vicarious conditioning of anxiety, fear responses are learned through _______.

    <p>modelling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not typically true of GAD?

    <p>It is not comorbid with other disorders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The dimensions of emotion described by Brown and Barlow are: (Select more than one)

    <p>Negative affectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What changes to the diagnostic criteria for GAD were enacted in the DSM-5?

    <p>No changes were made in the DSM-5.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The estimated lifetime prevalence of specific phobias is _______%?

    <p>7-9</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A panic disorder differs from a panic attack in that:

    <p>A panic disorder involves worry about having additional panic attacks.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Wells meta-cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), an individual with GAD is likely to have:

    <p>Both positive and negative beliefs about worrying.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are least likely to be the focus of a specific phobia? (Select more than one)

    <p>Weather</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Specific phobias comprise fear reactions to a specific object/situation that are: (Select more than one)

    <p>Intense</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Seligman's preparedness theory suggests that:

    <p>There is a biological/evolutionary component to phobic fears.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    People with social phobia avoid situations because they fear:

    <p>Embarrassment and negative evaluation by other people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Contemporary behavioural theorists emphasise the role of ________ in reducing phobic responses.

    <p>Inhibitory learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a change to anxiety disorders in the DSM-5?

    <p>Specific phobia and panic disorder are combined into one diagnosis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Barlow argues that ______ are the hallmark of anxiety disorders.

    <p>false alarms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An example of a social threat for sufferers of GAD is:

    <p>Worrying about not being liked by others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In previous editions of the DSM, agoraphobia was referred to as:

    <p>Complex phobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) typically experience worries about:

    <p>Both social threat and physical threat.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The clustering of emotional disorders, including anxiety, around a common genetic vulnerability has been called the general _______ syndrome.

    <p>neurotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not one of the new approaches for helping people with GAD?

    <p>Eye movement desensitization retraining (EMDR)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The median age of onset for agoraphobia is ______ years.

    <p>22</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The greater prevalence of specific phobias in children has led some to suggest that they:

    <p>May remit without treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The relief from escape and avoiding a feared stimulus is an example of:

    <p>Negative reinforcement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The insight of children with OCD is usually ______ and the insight of adults with OCD is usually ______.

    <p>poor, good</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Clark's cognitive model of panic disorder, individuals misinterpret the physiological sensations of panic in a ______ way.

    <p>catastrophic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Effective medications for treating panic disorder and agoraphobia include which of the following? (Select more than one)

    <p>Benzodiazepines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When a person is constantly thinking about germs, we would say they have a(n) ______ about cleanliness; if they constantly wash their hands, they are expressing a(n) ______.

    <p>obsession, compulsion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Effective medications for OCD were first developed _____ .

    <p>In the 1980s</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reviews of treatment studies have found that _________ therapy is the most effective treatment for specific phobias.

    <p>In vivo exposure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    SSRIs are among the most effective medications for treating OCD. These medications work by:

    <p>Preventing the reuptake of neurotransmitters.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    From an inhibitory learning perspective, the emphasis of treatment is on:

    <p>Identifying prediction errors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ________ involves the fear of panic and its consequences in the external environment.

    <p>Agoraphobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social anxiety disorder is also referred to as:

    <p>Social phobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lifetime prevalence estimate for panic disorder in Australia is ___%.

    <p>5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Apart from specific phobia, social anxiety disorder is one of the most common and _______ onset of anxiety disorders.

    <p>Earliest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is estimated that approximately ___% of the general population experience occasional panic attacks; however, only _____% go on to develop panic disorder.

    <p>10; 3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following have been associated with the development of social anxiety disorder? (Select more than one)

    <p>Excessive self-focus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of social anxiety disorder, the effectiveness of exposure therapy is enhanced when:

    <p>A cognitive rationale is provided</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _______ exposure involves inducing physical sensations of panic.

    <p>Interoceptive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder are particularly prone to which cognitive distortion?

    <p>Catastrophising</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The anxiety symptoms most troubling to sufferers of social anxiety disorder are those:

    <p>Visible to others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lifetime prevalence rate of GAD for the Australian population is ____%.

    <p>6.1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Some researchers have reported a mean duration of ______ years for untreated social anxiety disorder.

    <p>25</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the information processing model, individuals with GAD overestimate: (Select more than one)

    <p>The likelihood of negative events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Individuals with social anxiety disorder:

    <p>Believe they have social deficits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ________ refers to beliefs about one's own beliefs and those of others.

    <p>Meta-beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on what you have learned, if a person were to have panic attacks only within the privacy of his or her own home, we should predict that:

    <p>He or she will probably not develop agoraphobia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If someone began having panic attacks at age 14, this is the ________ of the disorder.

    <p>within the normal range of onset</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true?

    <p>Some with panic disorder engage in catastrophic thinking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The most effective medical treatments for panic disorder and agoraphobia involve:

    <p>Providing medications that increase the firing of GABA neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of catastrophic thinking?

    <p>I am feeling dizzy, and that means I am about to have a seizure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between panic disorder and agoraphobia?

    <p>Panic disorder often causes a person to develop agoraphobia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a form of psychotherapy that is recommended for panic disorder or agoraphobia?

    <p>Interpersonal insight in which the client gains insight into the importance of relationships in their life.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a symptom of panic attacks?

    <p>Flashbacks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are proposed causes for brain abnormalities or neurochemical imbalances that lead to mental disorders? (Select more than one)

    <p>Genetics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements of abnormality is most often incorporated into diagnostic criteria?

    <p>Dysfunction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A mental disorder is characterized by clinically significant disturbances in which of the following? (Select more than one)

    <p>Thinking patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the perspectives was the first to employ systematic and objective methods to assess symptoms and base classifications on this?

    <p>Biological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Initially developed to treat schizophrenia, _______ remains an effective method for managing treatment-resistant depression.

    <p>Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Biological perspectives of mental disorders are unable to account for the degree of ________ observed between different conditions.

    <p>comorbidity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the key methods of data collection used by researchers investigating biological contributions to mental disorders are ________ techniques.

    <p>brain-scanning and brain-imaging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychological perspectives see what as the primary causes of abnormal behaviour? (Select more than one)

    <p>Environmental factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rohan enjoys nothing more than online gaming. Based on this description, it is likely that Rohan would be described as having:

    <p>A problematic gaming addiction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If someone believed that a mental disorder was a disease that progressed through increasingly severe symptoms, this is most consistent with the __________ perspective.

    <p>Biological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychoanalysis is: (Select more than one)

    <p>A theory that explains human behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the major contributions of the biological perspective is the:

    <p>Development of effective drug treatments for mental disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In contrast to biological perspectives of mental disorders, __________ perspectives emphasise the interaction between environmental factors, learning history and belief systems.

    <p>Psychodynamic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Often people will talk about having an angel on one shoulder and the devil on the other—each telling them what to do. This can be likened to which respective psychoanalytic constructs?

    <p>Id and superego</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Although the psychoanalytic perspective broadened the definition of mental illness beyond psychosis, it primarily focused on treating:

    <p>Neuroses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The stages of psychosexual development imply that:

    <p>Females have less self-control than males</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the psychodynamic perspective, when the id, ego and superego are in conflict, people are likely to experience _________.

    <p>anxiety (or abnormal behaviour or distress)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rachel loves to hear about people's dreams, and then to analyze them to find their 'true meaning'. In psychoanalytic terms, Rachel is using the _______ content to determine the ________ content of dreams.

    <p>Manifest; latent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The purpose of __________ is to reduce the anxiety, guilt and embarrassment that arise from conflict between the id, ego and superego.

    <p>defence mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Carol believes that you have to 'read between the lines' of what someone says to find out what they actually mean. Carol's belief is akin to that of the __________ perspective.

    <p>Psychoanalytic (or psychodynamic)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following techniques are commonly used within psychoanalysis? (Select more than one)

    <p>Free association</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______ stage is crucial to the development of the superego.

    <p>phallic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the most influential concepts in contemporary psychodynamic perspectives is:

    <p>Object relations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An important contribution made by Freud that facilitated ongoing developments in the treatment of mental disorders was:

    <p>enabling mental health professionals other than psychiatrists to provide treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Willard subscribes to the psychoanalytic approach to mental disorders. As such, he is likely to believe that conflict among the id, ego and superego leads to _______? (Select more than one)

    <p>Abnormal behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The defence mechanism of reaction formation is best typified by:

    <p>Acting opposite to unconscious impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The 'learning' approach is another term used to describe the ________ approach/perspective of human behaviour.

    <p>behavioural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fundamentally, psychoanalytic techniques aim to:

    <p>make unconscious thoughts conscious to reduce distress</p> Signup and view all the answers

    While Freud emphasised the strivings of the ________ , contemporary psychodynamic theorists emphasise human behaviour in terms of the processes and development of the ________.

    <p>Id; ego</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within behaviourism, classical conditioning results from _______ learning, while operant conditioning results from ________ learning.

    <p>Unintentional; intentional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    One of the key criticisms of the psychodynamic perspective is its lack of ________.

    <p>falsifiability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which two perspectives agree that differences between normal and abnormal behaviour are a matter of degree, rather than representing distinctly different constructs?

    <p>Psychodynamic and behavioural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within the behavioural perspective, it is argued that the causes of behaviour are directly attributable to:

    <p>External stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have found that behavioural treatments for mental disorders are generally:

    <p>Able to achieve client gains in shorter time periods than other treatments</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In contrast to traditional behaviourists such as Skinner, contemporary behaviourists like Tolman argued that:

    <p>External reinforcement influences the rate of learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The learning principle that relies on automatic, autonomic responses to stimuli is:

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A major contribution made to the discipline of psychology by the behavioural perspective was:

    <p>The emphasis on experimentation and objective measurement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a learned behaviour begins to interfere with achieving goals, it is said to have become __________.

    <p>maladaptive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck are two theorists associated with the ________ perspective on mental disorders.

    <p>Cognitive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a treatment based on learning principles?

    <p>Pharmacotherapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not a common cognitive distortion identified by cognitive theorists?

    <p>Selective listening</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary difference between traditional and contemporary behavioural perspectives is the recognition of _________ constructs as necessary, and legitimate, foci of study.

    <p>non-observable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A _______ diary is often used in cognitive therapy to help identify negative beliefs and thinking patterns.

    <p>thought</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The exclusive focus on reward and punishment for behaviour modification resulted in ________ use of behaviourist principles in clinical contexts.

    <p>decreased/reduced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Within Ellis' ABC model, A refers to _____ ; B refers to ______ and C refers to ______.

    <p>Event; interpretation; response or behaviour</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The cognitive-behavioural perspective is currently the ______ psychological approach to understanding mental disorders.

    <p>dominant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which treatment approach has been scientifically demonstrated to be effective for a wide variety of disorders across adults, teenagers and children?

    <p>Cognitive-behavioural</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A client has been asked to conduct a behavioural experiment to test the belief that people are laughing at him. It is likely that his therapist subscribes to which perspective of mental disorders?

    <p>Cognitive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can trigger trichotillomania and excoriation disorder?

    <p>Boredom</p> Signup and view all the answers

    To meet the criteria of a compulsion, behaviors must be perceived to (Select all that apply):

    <p>Prevent threatening outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The prevalence of clinically significant hoarding is approximately ___%.

    <p>2-6</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Intrusive memories, flashbacks, and nightmares are all examples of:

    <p>Re-experiencing symptoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Despite the frequency of exposure to potentially traumatizing events, few people develop PTSD.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following disorders is most likely to be comorbidly diagnosed with PTSD?

    <p>Major depression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most acute stress reactions following traumatic events are:

    <p>Transient</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to cognitive models of PTSD, which of the following is pivotal in perpetuating a sense of threat?

    <p>Negative appraisals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For PTSD to develop, the traumatic event must include (Select all that apply):

    <p>Threat/actual harm to self</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which learning theory has been applied to understanding the development of PTSD?

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following has been associated with a greater risk of developing PTSD?

    <p>Interpersonal violence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Overactivation of which bodily system has been implicated in the development of PTSD?

    <p>Sympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It has been reported that up to ______% of individuals with PTSD will also meet criteria for major depression.

    <p>59</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Avoidance impedes the __________ of classically conditioned fear.

    <p>Extinction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors have been associated with an increased risk of developing PTSD following trauma? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Being female</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Prolonged exposure to trauma-related stimuli is an effective treatment approach as it allows for:

    <p>Modification of cognitive fear networks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    There is substantial evidence that ______ about the trauma predict the development of PTSD.

    <p>Maladaptive thoughts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Early intervention for PTSD is recommended because most people go on to experience natural remission of symptoms.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to learning accounts of the aetiology of PTSD, fear is the:

    <p>Unconditioned response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is proposed that the release of stress neurochemicals into the cortex results in strong fear __________ in people with PTSD.

    <p>Conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Extinction involves neural plasticity of structures in the:

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Avoidance prevents access to corrective information that __________ threats are no longer realistically dangerous.

    <p>perceived</p> Signup and view all the answers

    CBT for PTSD is also referred to as __________ CBT.

    <p>trauma-focussed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    There is a positive correlation between the experience of acute stress disorder and the later development of __________.

    <p>PTSD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Due to questions regarding the generalizability of results from clinical trials, the efficacy of CBT for PTSD in __________ settings remains unclear.

    <p>community</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chris's daughter nearly died at birth and had to undergo multiple surgeries to survive. Ever since then, Chris has avoided hospitals even when sick himself. Chris is demonstrating which symptoms associated with PTSD?

    <p>Avoidance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is estimated that individuals with PTSD are almost ____ times more likely to develop major depression than those without PTSD.

    <p>10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The psychological treatment of choice for PTSD is:

    <p>Cognitive behaviour therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The process of extinction is highly reliant on ________ receptors.

    <p>NDMA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ever since his car accident, Philip has been emotionally numb—not just to reminders of the accident. Philip is demonstrating which feature of PTSD?

    <p>Negative changes in mood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Previous __________ increases the risk of developing PTSD in response to trauma exposure.

    <p>Psychopathology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The role of avoidance in maintaining PTSD is recognized within which models describing the aetiology of the disorder? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Learning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following features of CBT for PTSD comprises providing information about the nature of the disorder and validating distress in response to trauma?

    <p>Psychoeducation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A key difference between the use of debriefing and CBT to treat PTSD is (Select all that apply):

    <p>Debriefing is an early-intervention approach, whereas CBT is not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Since experiencing a robbery in which she was held at knife point, Sally reports being very 'jumpy' and easily startled. This is an example of what type of symptom associated with PTSD?

    <p>Altered arousal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers suggest that _________ are more likely to be exposed to trauma than ________.

    <p>Males; females</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Rothbaum and colleagues demonstrated that the number of people who meet criteria for PTSD approximately __________ between two weeks and 11 weeks post event.

    <p>Halved</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When people with PTSD recall past traumatic events, they demonstrate higher _________ compared to individuals with a similar trauma history who have not developed PTSD (Select all that apply):

    <p>Heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Large-scale disasters pose particular challenges as no government has the __________ to provide face-to-face interventions for thousands of people.

    <p>resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The distinction between depression and bipolar disorder was first made by:

    <p>Emil Kraeplin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sam has a recurrent depressive disorder. Typically, he becomes symptomatic as winter sets in. Sam would likely be diagnosed with __________ patterns to his depressive disorder.

    <p>Seasonal affective disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A mood disturbance characterized by severe temper outbursts and persistent irritability is referred to as _____.

    <p>Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is estimated that 1 in ____ Australians are affected by someone close to them suffering from a mood disorder.

    <p>10</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following have been associated with a heightened risk of developing depression in young people? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Genetic vulnerability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Historically, the term _________ was used to describe both mental illness characterized by fear and depression, as well as a depressed personality style.

    <p>melancholia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Epidemiological data suggest that the median age of onset for mood disorders is about _______ years of age.

    <p>30</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Major depression is characterized by predominantly negative mood for at least ______ weeks, which represents a change in the person's functioning.

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have demonstrated that up to ______% of those with a depressive disorder will recover within the first six months of treatment.

    <p>50</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder is most likely to be diagnosed in _________ who behave in developmentally inappropriate ways.

    <p>Children</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Risk factors for suicide in those with depression include (Select all that apply):

    <p>Stressful life events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Among Australian adults, the prevalence of major depressive disorder is estimated to be ___% for men over a 12-month period.

    <p>3.1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Higher rates of sick leave from work associated with depression can result in (Select all that apply):

    <p>Financial strain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Australian data from 2015 indicates that up to ______% of adolescents will experience a depressive disorder within any 12-month period.

    <p>5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following anxiety disorders commonly precede the development of depressive disorders? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Panic disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have identified that adult episodes of depression can be predicted by childhood __________ problems.

    <p>Mental health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following have been associated with an increased risk of relapse for major depressive disorder? (Select all that apply)

    <p>Ongoing life stressors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Researchers have found an association between the experience of depression and the following physical health conditions (Select all that apply):

    <p>Cardiovascular disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Suicidal ______ refers to thoughts about suicide.

    <p>ideation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Serotonin, noradrenaline and dopamine belong to a family of neurotransmitters called __________.

    <p>monoamines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    For younger sufferers, depression can negatively impact academic ________.

    <p>performance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    It is suggested that environmental factors are more likely to trigger depression when they interact with (Select all that apply):

    <p>Biological vulnerabilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Beck's theory of depression, individuals have dysfunctional negative beliefs about (Select all that apply):

    <p>The world</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Depression has been correlated with poorer ________ functioning, which may increase the risk of physical illness.

    <p>Immunological</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Behavioural theories of depression focus on the ________ associated with depressed and non-depressed behaviours.

    <p>Contingencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The shorter allele of the 5-HTTLPT gene sequence has been implicated in the development of depression due to lower _________ reuptake at brain synapses.

    <p>Serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Psychoanalytic theories of depression conceptualize the experience as a form of:

    <p>Pathological grief</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Life events that include a sense of ______ and _______ are frequently associated with the onset of a depressive episode (Select all that apply):

    <p>Failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The absence of an intimate relationship can be a risk factor for depression, particularly for __________.

    <p>Women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors may protect against the development of depression? (Select all that apply)

    <p>High social connectedness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Beck argues that there is a relationship between negative cognitions and depressive symptoms, such that:

    <p>They perpetuate each other</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Panic Disorder and Agoraphobia

    • Panic attacks may occur in private without leading to agoraphobia, which typically develops when attacks occur in public.
    • Panic attacks involve symptoms such as shortness of breath, fear of dying, and dizziness, but not flashbacks.
    • Catastrophic thinking is evidenced by beliefs like interpreting dizziness as an impending seizure.
    • Treatment options involve medication that increases GABA neuron firing and psychotherapy methods like cognitive restructuring.

    Definitions and Perspectives

    • A mental disorder is characterized by clinically significant disturbances in thinking patterns, emotion regulation, and occupational performance.
    • Biological perspectives view mental disorders as diseases with progressing symptoms, emphasizing identifiable medical conditions.
    • Psychological perspectives focus on the interplay between environmental factors and individual beliefs as primary causes of abnormal behavior.

    Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Theories

    • Psychoanalysis seeks to uncover unconscious thoughts and resolve conflicts among the id, ego, and superego, with a focus on treating neuroses.
    • Techniques include free association and dream analysis, aiming to make unconscious thoughts conscious.
    • The superego's development is largely influenced by the phallic stage of psychosexual development.

    Behavioral and Cognitive Perspectives

    • Behavioral approaches view learning as a response to external stimuli and utilize methods like systematic desensitization and aversion therapy.
    • Cognitive theories associate mental disorders with cognitive distortions, such as magnification and over-generalization.
    • Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive and behavioral approaches and is the dominant method for treating a variety of disorders.

    Contributions to Psychology

    • The behavioral perspective prioritizes objective measurement and experimentation, while acknowledging mental disorders have biological and psychological contributions.
    • Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck are notable figures in the cognitive perspective, emphasizing the impact of cognitive distortions on mental disorders.
    • Humanistic perspectives focus on self-actualization and the influence of unconditional positive regard on individual development.

    Treatment Approaches

    • Effective treatment strategies integrate cognitive-behavioral therapy with other methodologies, highlighting the importance of studying thoughts and behaviors together.
    • The scientist-practitioner model exemplifies a structured approach to therapy, combining scientific research with clinical practice.
    • Historical figures like Freud contributed significantly to shaping contemporary understandings of psychological conditions and their treatment options.### Key Psychological Perspectives
    • Behavioural Perspective: Focuses on observable behaviors and the principles of learning.
    • Biological Perspective: Emphasizes genetic, neurological, and physiological factors influencing behavior.
    • Humanistic Perspective: Centers on individual potential, emphasizing personal growth and self-actualization. Key theorists include Maslow and Rogers.
    • Cognitive-Behavioural Perspective: Blends cognitive and behavioral theories, exploring how thoughts influence behavior, especially in mental disorders.

    Humanistic Approach

    • Unconditional Positive Regard: Essential in therapeutic settings; involves accepting clients without judgment, fostering an open and empathetic environment.
    • Characteristics of Therapists: Therapists should communicate honestly, demonstrate empathy, and maintain a non-judgmental stance towards clients.
    • Role of Self-Actualization: Individuals can reach their full potential through personal growth; Rasheed exemplifies this by owning a successful business despite facing disagreement.

    Cognitive-Behavioural Insights

    • Negative Cognitions: Cognitive-behaviourists assert that these cognitions play a significant role in mental disorders, influencing emotional and behavioral responses.
    • Therapeutic Change: Requires client congruence and openness; therapists should exhibit congruence in their therapeutic relationships.

    Classification Systems

    • DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders): The primary classification system in Australia for diagnosing mental disorders.
    • ICD (International Classification of Diseases): Provides an alternative classification system for mental health issues.

    Diagnostic Labels

    • Advantages of Diagnostic Labels: Improve treatment guidance, enhance professional communication, and provide greater access to resources.
    • Limitations of Labels: Can lead to misuse based on social norms, stigma, and over-diagnosis.

    Comorbidity and Diagnosis Issues

    • Diagnostic Instability: Highlights validity concerns within the current classification systems; mental health professionals may interpret symptoms differently.
    • Ethical Considerations: Emphasizes the responsibility of psychologists to contribute to social change and avoid exacerbating client distress.

    Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

    • Cognitive Distortions: Individuals with GAD often catastrophize situations and struggle with unrealistic appraisals of threats.
    • Co-occurring Conditions: GAD frequently accompanies panic disorder and other anxiety-related issues.

    Treatment Approaches

    • Behavioural Interventions: Techniques like in vivo exposure and habituation are used to treat specific phobias effectively.
    • Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT): The most supported treatment for anxiety disorders, focusing on altering cognitive patterns to manage anxiety.
    • Mindfulness Meditation: Emerging as a viable alternative treatment to address anxiety and GAD symptoms.

    Emotional and Physiological Responses

    • Fear Response: Generated by perceived danger, leading to immediate alarm reactions.
    • Cognitive Processing: Individuals with anxiety may focus excessively on visible anxiety symptoms, fear of social evaluation, and interpret ambiguous scenarios negatively.

    Social Anxiety Disorder

    • Characteristics: Involves an intense fear of social interactions, often leading to avoidance behaviors.
    • Prevalence Rates: One of the most common anxiety disorders, with significant implications for treatment and support.

    The Role of Family and Society

    • Sociocultural Influence: The family's role and societal expectations can significantly impact mental health outcomes and disorders.

    Implications for Treatment

    • Therapeutic Techniques: Essential to focus on predictions and errors in thoughts to modify anxiety responses effectively.
    • Medication Concerns: Side effects and dependency issues often limit the effectiveness of pharmacological treatments for anxiety disorders.### Understanding Dysfunction in Psychology
    • Dysfunction refers to a psychological process failing to perform its natural function.
    • Behavioral Dysfunction is marked by an individual’s inability to function effectively in society and manage daily life.

    Defense Mechanisms in Psychoanalysis

    • Psychoanalysts theorize that defense mechanisms distort impulses into acceptable forms or push them into the unconscious.

    Historical Context of Mental Illness

    • Prior to the 20th century, mental illness was often equated with insanity.

    Classical Conditioning in Behavior

    • The principle of classical conditioning asserts that all behaviors can be explained by conditioned and unconditioned responses.

    Co-occurrence of Mental Disorders

    • The pattern and rates of co-occurrence of mental disorders suggest the existence of higher-order dimensions of psychopathology.

    Defining Abnormal Behavior

    • Abnormal behavior features distress, dysfunction, rarity, and norm violation; however, treatment is not part of its definition.

    Criteria for Dysfunctional Behavior

    • A key aspect of dysfunctional behavior is whether it interferes with a person’s ability to engage in daily activities.

    Functional Analysis of Behavior

    • A functional analysis describes behaviors and their environmental determinants objectively.

    Biopsychosocial Approach

    • Human behavior is best explained through a combination of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.

    Kraepelin's Classification

    • Emil Kraepelin classified mental disorders primarily based on their symptoms.

    Key Issues in DSM-5 Construction

    • Key issues in the DSM-5 include a rating system for research quality, guidelines for criteria changes, and the dimensional approach.

    Cognitive Distortions

    • Common cognitive distortions include black and white thinking, over-generalizing, and catastrophizing, whereas repressing is not categorized as a cognitive distortion.

    Behavioral Perspective on Behavior

    • The behavioral perspective views behavior, normal and abnormal, as a product of learning.

    Phobias and Conditioning

    • The idea that specific phobias are learned through classical conditioning is challenged by evidence that not all individuals develop phobias after negative encounters.

    Vicarious Acquisition and Fear

    • Vicarious acquisition of fear occurs by observing another person’s fearful response.

    Hallmark of Anxiety Disorders

    • According to Barlow, the hallmark of anxiety is false alarms, typically manifesting as panic attacks.

    Agoraphobia Triggers

    • Individuals with agoraphobia avoid situations where escape would be difficult during a panic attack.

    Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

    • GAD symptoms commonly involve chronic worry, often concerning both social and physical threats.

    Diagnostic Criteria Changes for GAD

    • In DSM-5, no significant changes were made regarding the criteria for GAD.

    Panic Disorder vs. Panic Attack

    • Panic disorder is characterized by ongoing worry about future panic attacks, distinguishing it from panic attacks themselves.

    Meta-Cognitive Model of GAD

    • Individuals with GAD may have both positive and negative beliefs about worry.

    Preparedness Theory and Phobias

    • Seligman's preparedness theory suggests an evolutionary basis for certain phobic fears.

    Social Phobia

    • Individuals with social phobia often fear situations due to anticipated embarrassment and negative evaluation by others.

    Recent Changes in Anxiety Disorders

    • The DSM-5 revised distinctions in anxiety disorders such as separating agoraphobia from panic disorder.

    Treatment Approaches for GAD

    • New approaches for GAD include interpersonal therapy, mindfulness, and cognitive restructuring, with eye movement desensitization retraining (EMDR) not being one.

    Avoidance Reinforcement

    • Negative reinforcement is evident when avoidance of fearful stimuli provides relief.

    OCD Insight Differentiation

    • Children with OCD typically exhibit poor insight, whereas adults generally show good insight regarding their condition.

    Characteristics of Compulsion and Obsession

    • An obsession relates to persistent thoughts, while a compulsion is a repetitive behavior aimed at reducing anxiety.

    Effective Treatments for OCD

    • SSRIs, effective in treating OCD, function by preventing the reuptake of neurotransmitters.

    Psychotherapy for OCD

    • Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) is identified as the most effective treatment modality for OCD.

    Efficacy of OCD Treatments

    • Approximately 20% of OCD patients report complete relief from medications, while 50-80% experience symptom reduction after cognitive-behavioral therapy.

    Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy Features

    • Key features include exposure to anxiety-provoking stimuli and response prevention but do not typically involve progressive muscle relaxation.

    Clarifying Obsessions and Compulsions

    • Obsessions are intrusive thoughts, while compulsions are behaviors intended to alleviate the anxiety caused by these thoughts.

    Systematic Desensitization

    • This process implies a person confronts fear-inducing stimuli to reverse classical conditioning effects.

    PTSD Symptoms

    • Common PTSD symptoms include hypervigilance, insomnia, and flashbacks; however, depression itself is not a symptom.

    Effectiveness of Exposure Therapy

    • Exposure therapy is effective in treating simple phobias and PTSD.

    Emotional Numbing in PTSD

    • Emotional numbing is characterized by feelings of detachment from others.

    Effective Therapy for Depression

    • Research indicates that psychotherapy is more effective than drug therapy in preventing remissions of depression.

    Cognitive-Behavioral Techniques

    • Techniques to rationalize conditions in cognitive-behavioral therapy include examining the evidence, defining terms, and reversing roles.

    ECT Concerns

    • Concerns regarding ECT include potential for memory loss, use as social control, and high relapse rates.

    Bipolar Disorder Statistics

    • Bipolar disorder affects approximately 1-2% of Americans in their lifetime with a high prevalence of either manic episodes or psychotic symptoms during such states.

    Lithium for Bipolar Disorder

    • Effective in about 40% of cases, lithium serves to reduce symptoms but does not cure the disorder.

    Recognizing Behavioral Characteristics of Mania

    • Mania is associated with racing thoughts, sleeplessness, and irritability; hypervigilance is not typical.

    Age of Onset for Bipolar Disorder

    • Bipolar disorder typically emerges during late adolescence to early adulthood, specifically between ages 17 to 24.

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