Revolutionary War Strategies and Decisions

• These notes cover the Militia's War, preparations for a wider conflict, war strategies, the Saratoga Campaign, Valley Forge, British Strategies and more

The Militia's War: Lexington & Concord to Bunker Hill

• June 17, 1775: The Battle of Bunker Hill occurred
• Americans seized elevated ground on the Charleston Peninsula
• The British attacked three times
• Americans ran out of ammunition
• Militiamen started to flee out of panic.
• British casualties were 1054 killed/wounded/missing (44%)
• U.S. casualties reached 441 killed/wounded/missing (29%)
• The Americans were not intimidated by the experience

British "Bunker Hill" Syndrome

• This referred to the idea of avoiding rushing at American defense positions

Preparations for a Wider War: June 1775-July 1776

• The Americans were not ready to create a permanent standing army to maintain freedom
• They aimed to maintain 6 to 12-month enlistments
• On June 14, 1775, the Continental Army was created
• On June 15, 1775, General George Washington was given command
• The British realized that intimidation would not work
• They needed to create a large army to occupy and control the colonies
• They decided to hire mercenaries as opposed to upsetting Englishmen
• George Washington was 43 years old, physically tall, strong, and energetic
• He was politically moderate, only opposing British taxes
• He was a veteran of the French and Indian War
• He was a prominent Virginian who could be trusted with power
• In February 1776, Dorchester Heights was seized
• Washington waited until the army was organized and supplied
• Distinctions between officers and enlisted men were clarified
• The army was organized into regiments, brigades, and divisions and discipline was instilled
• Equipment and supplies were obtained to attack the British in Boston
• In March 1776, the British evacuated Boston and sailed to Halifax, NS

War Strategies: Plans for 1776

• The British aimed to increase military strength

Shift in Focus

• The British shifted from New England to the Middle Colonies
• General William Howe became the new commander.
• The British government wanted to break the will of the Americans
• British generals wanted to control territory along with minimizing casualties
• Americans planned to defend colonies and maintain public support
• Howe's Plan aimed to encircle New England and convince Americans to surrender
• This would be done by capturing New York City, ravaging the coastline from NY to ME, occupying the Hudson River Valley and linking up with British forces in Canada

Washington's Plan

• Washington planned to defend NYC by denying the British an ice-free port
• It would also keep open the Hudson River for trade and communication and maintain the link between Middle and New England colonies
• Defending NYC was difficult because the Americans had to occupy Manhattan Island, Long Island, and Eastern New Jersey while the British controlled the sea

Battle of Long Island (Tactics Serving Strategy)

• British forces numbered 24,000 men with both infantry and artillery and had experience
• American forces had less than a year of experience
• General William Howe's strategy aimed to drive Americans out of NYC and create the impression of British invincibility, but not trap and destroy the Continental Army on Manhattan Island
• General William Howe's tactics minimized bloodshed and destruction
• On August 22, 1776, troops moved from Staten Island to Long Island
• Five days were spent searching for an approach to Brooklyn Heights without a direct assault on the American position
• Washington had approximately 4,000 men on the Heights of Guana
• On August 27, 1776, the Battle of Long Island occurred when Howe turned the Left Flank of the American line
• Americans panicked and retreated to Brooklyn Heights
• Howe planned to lay siege to Brooklyn Heights
• British casualties were 370 killed/wounded/missing (2%)
• American casualties were 1000 killed/wounded/missing (25%)
• August 28-29, 1776, saw the Evacuation of Brooklyn Heights
• Howe was lax in his security but Washington was exceptional in his audacity
• The Continental Army survived due to heavy fog over the East River
• Only 3 Americans were captured

From NY to NJ (Strategies of Persuasion)

• September 11, 1776, the Staten Island Peace Conference occurred with no agreement reached
• Great Britain was represented by General William Howe and Lord Richard Howe
• The U.S. was represented by John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Edward Rutledge
• The British could offer no concessions besides unconditional surrender, and the Americans wanted their independence recognized
• September 15, 1776: Battle of Kip's Bay forced Washington to abandon NYC and Manhattan Island and the Continental Army retreated across NJ
• December 1776: Continental Army in PA saw Howe go into winter quarters but Washington planned an immediate attack
• December 16, 1776: The Battle of Trenton saw 74% casualties for Hessians (out of 1400 men) and 4 wounded for Americans (out of 2400 men)
• January 3, 1777: The Battle of Princeton led to 23% casualties for the British (out of 7000 men) and 1% casualties for Americans (out of 5000 men)
• Washington retired in Morristown, NJ for the winter

Saratoga Campaign (Conventional Interlude)

• The British strategy for 1777 vacillated between conciliation and annihilation as 3 armies converged in upstate NY to isolate New England from the rest of the colonies
• Howe aimed to capture Washington's army and/or Pennsylvania without cooperating with other British armies
• Howe's Strategy for 1777 was contradictory focusing on more conciliation
• His aims were to secure Pennsylvania territory, reestablish a loyalist government in PA, and disrupt American rebel leadership (2nd Continental Congress in Pennsylvania) and sought a "decisive battle" with Washington's Continental Army
• At the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777, Washington decided to fight before abandoning Philadelphia and Howe saw an opportunity for annihilation
• Washington failed to protect his Right Flank and was surprised and almost destroyed
• Howe moved cautiously toward Philadelphia
• September 26, British troops marched into Philadelphia, with 15,500 men (587 k/w/m) versus the American's 14,600 men (1300 k/w/m)
• General John Burgoyne's strategy and logistics involved moving 9000 men over 350 miles of wilderness from Quebec to Albany with a large artillery (138 guns) and a heavy baggage train
• They had guns to avoid frontal attacks by his infantry
• June 21: Departure via Lake Champlain
• July 1: Crown Point
• July 9: Skenesboro
• July 29: Fort Edward
• It's less than 50 miles from Albany, NY, must cross to the west bank of Hudson River resulting in severe line of communication with Quebec, must gather supplies before pushing farther south
• Aug 16: Battle of Bennington: The VT & NH militia stopped British/German/Indian/Loyalist forces
• The Indians lost faith in the British
• Burtgone decided to continue southward despite the setback with Burgoyne having Americans= 2400 men= 70k/w/m vs British 1500 men= 900 k/w/m
• September 13: Burgoyne finally advanced south from Fort Edward after 7 weeks
• This meant too much delay and not enough supplies
• Sep 15 Burgoyne crosses to the west bank of the Hudson River, choosing, 'no turning back now!'

Battles of Saratoga

• Americans entrenched on high ground
• September 19: Battle of Freeman's Farm
• British tried to turn the American Left Flank with 6000 British men vs the Americans with 7000 men= 330 k/w/m
• October 7: Battle of Bemis Heights, the British tried to reconnaissance in force to see if American Left Flank was vulnerable to a full-scale attack
• The Americans had 11,000 men vs the British with 6000 men
• October 17: Burgoyne Surrendered
• The Surrender was a major Turning point of the American Revolution

Revolution in Warfare (The People in Arms)

Saratoga Campaign

• Why did the British Invasion Fail?
• There was a British failure to cooperate & communicate
• Howe was preoccupied with Pennsylvania
• Burgoyne showed cautious, conventional strategy
• Burgoyne had logistical problems and showed determination to reach Albany, NY
• Gate showed strategic caution
• Arnold showed tactical aggressiveness
• Britain was forced began to rely on loyalists reducing it's forces after Saratoga
• There was fighting in France in the West Indies and India
• General Henry Clinton replaced General Wililam Howe
• The Americans were forced to rely on Patriots, with France acting as an ally
• The second half of the war would be fought primarily by Americans fighting for the allegiance of the people

Valley Forge (1777-1778)

• Winter Quarters at Valley Forge was chosen as the army was in striking distance of Howe's army, far enough away to offer security and couldn't abandon SE PA to Loyalists
• Southeast Pennsylvania farmers were expected to provide supplies and the winter quarters themselves were defensible
• American soldiers dealt with the cold and snow of winter
• The "Moderate Winter of 1777-78 saw inconsistent snow with Only 3 "significant" snowstorms
• Warm temperatures melted snow leading to mud
• American citizens becoming American soldiers, with morale remaining high despite tactical defeats, such as at Brandywine (Sep 11, 1777) and Germantown (Oct 4, 1777)
• 50% had no shoes, socks, or blankets with resulting Food shortages
• There was an absence of shelters until fortifications were built
• Washington expressed concerns about the army dissolving to Congress, Dec 22, 1777
• Most suffering was due to a lack of logistics

Most suffering was due to a lack of logistics owing to:

• Congressional Committees which demonstrated reluctance to take supplies or "fix” prices
• There were inadequate Finances
• Farmers refused depreciated American dollars, isolated locations, logistical problems, and poor Quartermaster and Commissary Depts.
• Unqualified Officers & Corrupt Civilians were hired, such as William Buchanan, who was Incompetent and indolent and appointed by Congress
• Purchasing Agents were paid as a percentage not a salary
• Gen. Nathanael Greene was empowered to supervise Comissarry Gen
• Some doubted regarding the actual necessity of a professional army

American Solutions:

• Equipped soldiers preformed guard duty who wore tattered “summer” uniforms while Unequipped soldiers performed labor
• There was Morality at Valley Forge with deaths, desertion, better weather and better supplies
• Influenza, Typhus, Typhoid, Dysentery, and Smallpox were all rampant
• Washington ordered controversial inoculations
• Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben was brought in who was a product of France
• He Trained Americans, standardized strengths, simplified instruction, and emphasized marching

George Washington Builds an Army

• General Washington expressed concerns, telling Congress in one letter: -"A small knowledge of human nature will convince us that, with far the greatest part of mankind, interest is the governing principle: and that, almost every man is more or less under its influence."
• He asked them to increase pay, Provide pensions, and combine under-strength regiments
• May 7, 1778= Washington announced the France- American military alliance
• This had an impact on Washington's Military Strategy as he was forced to wait and react to British

New British Strategy

• Under Charles Jenkinson, there was Post-Saratoga Strategy
• The aim was to "Abandon New England" and Control Everything Else
• There was concentrate military operations down in the south to protect British interests in the region

Conclusion of Northern War

• 1775-78 saw a Stalemate in the North, as Washington developed into a commander and the Americans developed into soldiers
• The nature of the war changed from a civil war to a world war

Explore the strategic decisions and reasons behind military actions during the American Revolution. This includes the colonial preference for short-term enlistments, the impact of Bunker Hill, British use of mercenaries, and Washington's role and strategies.