Respiratory System Overview

Respiratory System

• Respiration involves multiple processes
• Breathing is essential for ATP production, O2 intake, CO2 removal, and pH regulation

Respiratory Organs

• The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity/nose and the pharynx
• The nasal cavity/nose has specific tissue types and functions
• The pharynx has 3 areas and specific tissue types
• The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx and trachea
• The larynx contains vocal cords, glottis, epiglottis, and cartilages, each with specific functions
• The trachea has cartilage

Bronchial Tree and Lungs

• The branches of the bronchial tree have specific tissue types
• Alveoli are present and have specific tissue types and functions
• The lungs are composed of visceral and parietal pleura

Respiration Mechanics

• Inspiration involves a pressure of 760mmHg, a pressure gradient, Boyle's Law, and specific muscles
• Expiration can be quiet (passive) or forced (using specific muscles)

Lung Volumes and Capacities

• TV (Tidal Volume) describes the amount of air that moves in or out of the lungs during a normal breath
• IRV (Inspiratory Reserve Volume) describes the amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation
• ERV (Expiratory Reserve Volume) describes the amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal volume exhalation
• RV (Residual Volume) describes the amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced exhalation
• VC (Vital Capacity) is a measurement, and requires a specific equation
• TLC (Total Lung Capacity) is a measurement, and requires a specific equation

Respiratory Control

• Respiratory control is managed by the medullary and pontine centers
• Breathing can be voluntary or involuntary
• Factors can affect breathing

Respiratory Membrane

• The respiratory membrane consists of the alveolar wall, blood capillary wall, and basement membrane

Gas Movement

• Gas movement is affected by high altitude

Gas Transportation

• Oxygen is transported via oxyhemoglobin
• Factors affect oxygen release
• Oxygen can be dissolved in plasma
• Carbon dioxide is transported via plasma, carboxyhemoglobin, and bicarbonate

Urinary System Functions and Organs

• Kidneys (2), ureters (2), bladder, and urethra are the major structures of the urinary system
• Kidneys are retroperitoneal and have specific anatomy and functions
• Ureters may contain stones and specific tissues
• The bladder consists of the Trigone and Detruser muscle, and deals with infection

Nephrons

• Nephrons are either cortical or juxtamedullary, and differ between males and females
• Major parts of nephrons include the corpuscle, PCT (Proximal Convoluted Tubule), Loop of Henle, DCT (Distal Convoluted Tubule), Collecting Duct, and JGA (Juxtaglomerular Apparatus)

Corpuscle

• The corpuscle consists of the capsule and glomerulus
• It has specific functions

Tubules

• The PCT, Loop of Henle, DCT, and collecting duct each have specific functions
• The JGA contains the macula densa and also has specific functions

Urine Formation

• Glomerular filtration involves GFR (glomerular filtration rate) and blood pressure
• GFR (glomerular filtration rate) is affected and autoregulated by hormones
• Tubular reabsorption involves active transport, osmosis, and endocytosis
• Tubular secretion is also a factor in urine formation

Urine Regulation, Composition, and Elimination

• Urine concentration is regulated by hormones such as ANP, aldosterone, and ADH
• Urine consists of urea and uric acid
• Lifespan changes affect urine production

Reproductive System

• Internal vs External (labia, etc), and also have functions
• Mammary glands and ovaries contain follicles
• The uterus has layers, anatomy, and functions
• Hormones affect the reproductive system
• Menopause and the menstrual cycles are also factors
• Ovulation is caused by a hormone

Male Reproductive System

• The testes produce testosterone
• The epididymis has a specific function
• The penis has functions, and contains the corpus spongiosum and corpus cavernosum
• Accessory glands release specific substances
• Sperm follows a specific pathway
• Meiosis, spermatogenesis, and sperm parts are involved in reproduction
• Male puberty is influenced by hormones
• Erection is parasympathetic and ejaculation is sympathetic