Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas

Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas

• Following the British victory in the French and Indian War, the Proclamation of 1763 reserved the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River for Native Americans
• This marked the first instance of a European government acknowledging indigenous peoples' territorial rights.
• British colonists resented this interference
• After independence, U.S. citizens overran the Ohio and Illinois river valleys, displacing Native Americans.

Cherokee Nation

• After 1800, the Cherokee assimilated to white settler culture by adopting colonial farming, weaving, and building methods
• The Cherokee developed a syllabic alphabet for writing their language and produced the Cherokee Phoenix: the first Native American newspaper in the United States.
• The Cherokee nation adopted a constitution based on the U.S. Constitution.
• Attempts to force the Cherokee off their land began after the discovery of gold on Cherokee land in Georgia in 1829.
• The Indian Removal Act of 1830 forced the Cherokee and other Southeast Native American tribes to relocate to present-day Oklahoma.

Ghost Dance

• In the northwestern United States around 1869, prophet-dreamers among the Northern Paiute Indians announced the return of the dead to drive out the whites, restoring Native American lands and traditions
• Rituals of dances and songs aimed to hasten the event
• The Ghost Dance spread from the Sierra Nevada to the Missouri River and from northern Texas to the Canadian border.
• Reaching the Sioux by 1890 and coinciding with the Sioux revolts, where Sioux warriors wore "ghost shirts"
• However, the Ghost Dance resistance ended at the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890

Túpac Amaru II

• José Gabriel Condorcanqui, a cacique (hereditary chief) in southern Peru claimed descent from the last Inca ruler and adopted the name Túpac Amaru II.
• Born around 1740 and maintained his Inca identity despite a formal Jesuit education
• In 1780 he arrested and executed a colonial administrator for cruelty, leading the last general Indian revolt against Spain which was supported at first by some criollos (Spaniards born in America).
• The revolt spread through southern Peru, Bolivia, and Argentina before Túpac Amaru II and his family were captured in March 1781.
• Túpac Amaru II was forced to watch as his wife and sons were executed before he was tortured and executed himself in Cuzco, the former capital of the Inca empire.

French Intervention in Mexico

• In 1863, Mexican conservatives conspired with Emperor Napoleon III of France to overthrow the liberal government of Benito Juárez, a Zapotec
• Napoleon III aimed to further his imperialist ambitions with Mexico as France was owed money
• Archduke Maximilian, was made the emperor of Mexico on June 10, 1864
• Mexicans forced the French to withdraw after three years, with Maximilian executed on June 19, 1867, allowing Juárez to resume the presidency.

South Asian Movements

• By the mid-19th century, sepoys which were Indian soldiers under British employ, made up the majority of the British armed forces in colonial India
• In 1857, rifle cartridges greased with cow and pig fat angered Hindu and Muslim sepoys, sparking the Indian Rebellion of 1857, or the Sepoy Mutiny and spread through northern India
• The British crushed the rebellion, but the event marked the emergence of Indian nationalism
• After the Indian Rebellion, Britain exiled the Mughal emperor, ended the Mughal Empire, and took a more active role in ruling India through the British Raj from 1858 until India won independence in 1947
• In 1885, British-educated Indians established the Indian National Congress, which began as a forum for airing grievances to the colonial government but quickly started calling for self-rule.

Southeast Asian Resistance

• By the 1880s, Siam (Thailand) was the only independent Southeast Asian country, with the rest under Spanish, Dutch, British, and French control

Vietnam

• Vietnamese resisted French colonialism from the beginning
• Criticism from top advisers of the French was vocal when 12-year-old Ham Nghi became emperor in 1884.
• Ham Nghi's supporters resisted French rule until his capture in 1888
• Phan Dinh Phung continued the resistance until 1895.

Philippine Resistance

• The Philippines came under Spanish control in the 16th century, but wealthy Filipinos sent their sons to Europe for education
• José Rizal started the Liga Filipina (Philippine League) reform movement in 1892.
• Rizal's arrest and execution shocked many Filipinos, and In 1896 several revolts marked the beginning of the Philippine Revolution.
• The Spanish-American War in 1898 transferred control of the Philippines from Spain to the United States through the Treaty of Paris.
• Hostilities broke out in the Philippine-American War which ended in a U.S. victory in 1902
• Organized resistance continued until 1906, but the Philippines remained a U.S. possession until 1946.

Resistance in Australia and New Zealand

• The Aboriginal people have been in Australia for an estimated 50,000 years with the oldest continuous culture on Earth.
• In 1788, the British began sending convicts and soldiers to establish colonies in New South Wales while not recognizing indigenous land ownership, and indigenous inhabitants were not considered British subjects leading to thousands being killed.

New Zealand

• New Zealand's Maori arrived from Polynesia in the 14th century.
• Under the 1840 Treaty of Waitangi, Britain promised to protect the property rights of the Maori, however, British settlement patterns alarmed the community and Maori Wars broke out

African Resistance

• Organized African resistance to imperialism developed later than Indian resistance due to the later arrival of European powers
• Western-educated Africans developed a shared identity and nationalism known as Pan-Africanism by the end of World War I (1914-1918).

Sokoto Caliphate

• Rulers often mixed Islamic and traditional religious practices in West Africa in the 18th century
• In 1804, Usman dan Fodio led a drive to purify Islam among the Hausa tribes, creating a caliphate with its seat at Sokoto
• The Sokoto Caliphate established the slave trade for economic growth when Britain was trying to stop it
• The British navy intercepted Sokoto Caliphate ships, freed enslaved people, and relocated them to Sierra Leone
• It was the largest African empire since the 16th century
• Subdued in 1903, the British made it part of their colony of Nigeria.

South Africa

• From 1811 to 1858, the British fought the native Xhosa people, who did not want to be ruled by Europeans, whether Dutch or English.
• In 1856-1857, the Xhosa began killing their cattle and destroying crops east of the Cape Colony to remove British settlers, leading to the Xhosa Cattle Killing Movement, and famine.
• In the 1870s, the British fought the Zulu Kingdom and their lands became part of the British colony of South Africa.

Samory Touré's War

• In West Africa in 1868, Mande chieftain Samory Touré (1830-1900) established a powerful kingdom in Guinea, opposing French attempts to annex West Africa since 1883.
• The French captured him in 1898 and sent him into exile.

Mahdist Revolt

• In East Africa in 1881, Sudanese Islamic cleric Muhammad Ahmad (1844-1885) declared himself the Mahdi, who would restore the glory of Islam.
• Turning the political movement into a religious one Ahmad formed an army to fight against Egypt.
• The Mahdist army took control of the area around Khartoum by 1882
• The Mahdist movement disintegrated following Ahmad’s death in June 1885
• The British returned to Sudan in 1896, and defeated the Mahdists in September 1898.

Yaa Asantewaa War

• Beginning in 1823, the British made several attempts to subjugate the Asante Empire in present-day Ghana in West Africa
• The fifth and final war known as the Yaa Asantewaa War or the War of the Golden Stool began since the British governor of the Gold Coast demanded the Golden Stool
• Yaa Asantewaa (1840–1921) led a rebellion against the British, this was the last African war led by a woman.
• The war concluded in September 1900 with a British victory, leading to Yaa Asantewaa's exile and Asante's incorporation into the Gold Coast colony.

Global Economic Development

• Industrialization was a primary driver of imperialism during the 1700s and 1800s
• Britain industrialized rapidly creating a need to feed industries' desire for raw materials, such as cotton, copper, and rubber, shifting Europe's focus to Asia and Africa
• The people of these continents were also potential consumers of European and American manufactured goods, used as colonial labor, and provided new markets. Natural resources, new markets, and low-wage labor boosted economic imperialism.

Technological Developments

• The Industrial Revolution affected transportation and communication
• Railroads lowered the cost of transporting raw materials for shipment to Europe while Europeans saw their railroad projects as evidence that imperialism benefited Asia and Africa.
• Railroad technology was a means of extracting resources while paying colonial laborers as little as possible.
• Steamships could transport people, mail, and goods on navigable rivers, with the development of more efficient steam engines in 1870 allowing steamboats to be practical for long distances.
• Telegraphs transformed communications, with news travel instantaneously and submarine cables crossing oceans

Agricultural Products

• Europeans found mainly agricultural economies when they arrived in Asia and Africa with the majority living on substinence farming
• Imperialist powers made farmers switch to growing cash crops such as tea, cotton, sugar, oil palms, rubber, and coffee
• Imperial demands for cash crops caused food prices to rise within nations.

Meat and Fertilizer

• Growing European middle classes created a demand for meat
• Cattle ranches in Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay produced beef for export and sheep herders in Australia and New Zealand exported lamb and mutton
• Bat and seabird excrement, guano, is rich in nitrates and phosphates, making it an excellent natural fertilizer.

Raw Materials

• Demand for raw materials turned colonies into export economies with focus on tropical climates that were conducive to their presence
• The British put a ban on Indian cotton textiles in 1721
• As a result, farmers all over the world began replacing food production with cotton to make up for the shortage
• Natural rubber softens when warm and hardens when cold. In 1839, Charles Goodyear developed vulcanization that created the modern rubber industry
• In 1876, the British India Office obtained rubber tree seeds from Brazil. After being propagated in England, the seedlings were sent to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Singapore

Palm Oil

• The demand for palm oil increased which originated in West Africa, where it was a staple food product used as money in many African cultures
• European colonists established oil palm plantations in Malaya and the Dutch East Indies
• Ivory, (the tusks of elephants), was prized for its beauty and durability and used primarily for piano keys, billiard balls and knife handles.

Minerals

• Mexico produced silver
• Chile produced copper
• Australia and South Africa produced deposits of gold.
• Cecil Rhodes acquired De Beers mining claims and formed the De Beers Mining Company in 1880. By 1891, De Beers accounted for 90 percent of the world's diamond production
• Rhodes became the prime minister of the Cape Colony where his racist policies would pave the way for apartheid, or racial segregation.

Global Consequences

• Industrialization was accompanied by the need for raw materials and urban populations grew
• As industrialized nations grew wealthier stock exchanges developed
• The development of monocultures caused badly damaged croplands causing them to import basic agricultural goods in order to feed their people.

Economic Imperialism

• Economic imperialism developed as businesses took advantage of natural resources beyond their borders supported by the shift of agricultural influence and power of raw materials away from Asia and Latin America to Britain, the United States, France, Japan, and Germany
• People, raw materials, and refined materials became limited resources that came on a large scale.

Economic Imperialism in Asia

• England’s defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588 created an opening for the British and Dutch to take control of the spice trade in Asia from the Spanish and Portuguese, who formerly had a monopoly on it.
• The English East India Company formed in 1600 to engage in the lucrative spice trade, with cotton and silk textiles replacing spice.
• The Dutch East India Company had a monopoly on trade with the Dutch East Indies in present-day Indonesia
• In 1830, the Dutch government introduced the Culture System where villagers grow cash crops or perform corvée labor, compulsory unpaid work

China

• Chinese goods such as porcelain, silk, and tea were in great demand in Great Britain, British silver reserves were low.
• The company then sold it for silver in China, where millions of people became addicted to the illegal drug.
• The Chinese emperor criminalized the use of opium in 1729.
• The Chinese government seized the British opium warehoused in the port of Canton (Guangzhou), resulting in the first Opium War (1839-1842).

Spheres of Influence

• Japan, France, Germany, Russia, and the United States forces China to give them exclusive trading rights in areas known as spheres of influence
• The Open Door policy allowed for a system of trade in China to be open to all countries equally in order to keep any one power from total control of China.

Economic Imperialism in Africa

• Before colonization, most farming in Africa was to raise food crops but afterwards became converted cash crop production
• This unequal trade structure made the colonies economically dependent on the imperial powers, and reliance on a single cash crop would cause food shortages.
• The expansion of the British in Uganda and the British and French in Africa was focused on cotton and slave labor was used to produce cash crops, especially oil palms, coffee, and cocoa.

Economic Imperialism in Latin America

• Latin America was subjected to imperialist aggression from Europe and the United States
• Major trading partners were Britain, France, and Germany which invested over $10 billion in Latin America
• In 1823, the Monroe Doctrine, the U.S. policy of opposing European colonialism in the Americas,
• Copper dominated Chile's exports with the mining sector making up one-third of the government income.
• However, Brazil declined after people began growing rubber in Malaysia at a lower cost of product

Central America and the Caribbean

• The United Fruit Company was an American corporation that traded in tropical fruit, primarily bananas.

Economic Imperialism in Hawaii

• American businesses and sugar planters in Hawaii overthrew the constitutional monarchy in 1893, hoping for annexation by the United States.
• In 1898, Hawaii became a territory of the United States.

Contextualizing Economic Imperialism

• The Industrial Revolution developed the demand for raw materials and the technological ability through steamships, railroads, and military weapons for economic imperialism

Causes of Migration in an Interconnected World

• As industrialization grew, populations moved to urban centers
• To meet the demands for workers, coerced and semi-coerced migration of people resulted in slavery, indentured servitude, and convict labor

Migration through Labor Systems

• The demand for agricultural goods was increasing, so European states recruited new laborers to produce wealth:
• Indian laborers migrated to British colonies in the Caribbean, South Africa, East Africa, and Fiji.
• Chinese laborers migrated to California and British Malaya to build railroads and serve as domestics.
• Japanese laborers migrated to Hawaii, Peru, and Cuba to work on sugar plantations

Slavery

• Most countries in the Americas abolished the African slave trade in the early 19th century, and the states that abolished the slave trade were the United States (1865), Cuba (1886), and Brazil (1888).

Indentured Servitude

• Many people became indentured as a way to pay for their transportation while others were forced to pay off a debt.
• In Mauritius, Fiji, and Trinidad, the cultures added a strong Indian influence.

Asian Contract Laborers

• Many Chinese and Indian workers were were exploited as substitutes for slave labor
• Britain first tried this labor in 1806 while China and Spain terminated due to a treaty in 1877

British Penal Colonies

• The British government shipped convicts from England, Scotland, and Ireland in 1700 to their penal colony in Australia after they lost their original one in Georgia.
• In 1850, the British government ended the transportation of convicts to Australia.

French Penal Colonies

• New Caledonia served as a penal colony from 1864 to 1897 for both convicts and political prisoners.

Migration in the Face of Challenges

• The word diaspora is often applied to mass emigrations - the African slave trade was responsible for the biggest diaspora in history

India

• Began sending Indians to Mauritius as indentured workers to replace enslaved workers on the sugar plantations.
• Over 1.5 million Indians were shipped to colonies in Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and Oceania
• The kangani (foreman who oversees workers) system and the maistry (supervisors) system recruited from their own families/hierarchies

China

• Chinese diaspora did not begin in earnest in the middle of the 19th century with immigrants for gold

Ireland

• People emigrated from Ireland after repeals of the Corn Laws due to the Great Famine (1845-1849)
• People were going to Great Britain and the United States to build canals since the 18th century, and continued to leave to help build railroads.

Italy

• Farmers had an increasingly difficult time making a living due to poverty

Migration to Settler Colonies

• Most large numbers of British citizens moved abroad to settler colonies
• However, some went as managers for plantations or colonial enterprises.

Technical Experts

• Engineers and geologists migrated to South Asia, one was Andrew Geddes Bain, who emigrated to Cape Town, South Africa, in 1816

Argentina

• Argentina was part of Britain's "informal" empire which founded banks while developing the export trade in agricultural products,
• Most had no problem with poverty as they were businessmen, bankers, and engineers

Japan

• By 1893, the Japanese government decided to acquire an overseas empire and established the Colonization Society for trade
• The Gentlemen's Agreement between the United States and Japan in 1907 stated the U.S. would not impose restrictions on Japanese immigration, and Japan would not allow further emigration to the U.S