Research Process in Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What happens when a categorical variable has 3 or more categories in regression analysis?

It can be used as a predictor without any issues.

It enhances the analysis by adding complexity.

It may manipulate the findings. (correct)

It is automatically excluded from the model.

How are binary categorical variables coded in a multiple regression analysis?

Coding is not necessary for binary variables.

Both groups must be coded as 1.

One group is left uncoded.

One group is coded as 0 and the other as 1. (correct)

Why can binary categorical variables be included in a multiple regression analysis but not in a simple correlation analysis?

Correlation requires all variables to be continuous.

Multiple regression allows for prediction using several variables. (correct)

Simple correlation can handle more variables.

Binary variables provide less information in correlation.

What is the effect of changing the coding of binary groups in regression analysis?

It changes the interpretive direction of the relationship. Signup and view all the answers

What type of variables can be included in a regression model compared to correlation analysis?

Both continuous and binary categorical variables. Signup and view all the answers

What are the main components of variance in a factorial ANOVA?

Main effects, interaction effect, and residual variance Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hypothesis is preferred when previous research consistently shows higher scores for a particular condition?

One-tailed hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical assumption for performing parametric analysis?

The data must be independent Signup and view all the answers

What does the homogeneity of variance assumption specifically address?

The variability among each group should be similar Signup and view all the answers

In which design should the distribution for each condition be assessed separately?

Independent measures design Signup and view all the answers

What action should be taken if parametric assumptions are violated?

Conduct a non-parametric analysis Signup and view all the answers

What type of hypothesis involves predicting a difference without specifying a direction?

Two-tailed hypothesis Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following defines residual variance in factorial ANOVA?

Variance that cannot be explained by the model Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of pre-registration in psychological research?

To submit a research proposal with planned methods and hypotheses Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the three problematic practices identified in research?

Data triangulation Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'operationalize' refer to in psychological research?

The act of defining what will be measured Signup and view all the answers

What type of data primarily consists of numerical values in research?

Quantitative data Signup and view all the answers

The 'File Drawer Problem' in research refers to what issue?

Not publishing studies with strong methodologies that fail to replicate findings Signup and view all the answers

What does 'HARKing' stand for in the context of psychological research?

Hypothesizing After Results are Known Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes nominal data?

Data that represents categories without a specific order Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following issues is primarily related to small sample sizes in psychological research?

Lower power of statistical tests Signup and view all the answers

What does objectivism suggest about phenomena?

Phenomena exist independently of social actors. Signup and view all the answers

Which research approach tends to emphasize the importance of researchers' experiences and interpretations?

Phenomenology Signup and view all the answers

What is fundamental to social constructionism?

Reality is shaped through interactions and language. Signup and view all the answers

In descriptive phenomenology, the researcher focuses on:

Seeking a pure understanding by bracketing their own biases. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary aim of interpretative phenomenology?

To understand how participants interpret their experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes constructionism?

Social actors continuously create and redefine reality. Signup and view all the answers

Quantitative researchers typically aim to:

Maintain an objective distance from the research process. Signup and view all the answers

What does constructivism suggest about reality?

It is uniquely constructed by individuals' cognitive processes. Signup and view all the answers

Reflexivity in qualitative research involves:

Critically examining one's own biases and motives. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the difference between qualitative and quantitative approaches?

Qualitative research is linked to constructionism, while quantitative relates to objectivism. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of counterbalancing in experiments?

To manage the order of treatment conditions Signup and view all the answers

How does internal validity relate to the design of an experiment?

It ensures that other variables do not influence the outcome. Signup and view all the answers

What is a crucial aspect of achieving reliability in measurements?

Consistently measuring the same individuals over time. Signup and view all the answers

What does test-retest reliability refer to in a repeated measures design?

The consistency of measurements over different occasions. Signup and view all the answers

What should participants be informed about before consenting to an experiment?

Any risks associated with participation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following can threaten the internal validity of an experiment?

Participant behavior influenced by the research setting Signup and view all the answers

Which method can help control for confounding variables in analysis?

Measuring the confounding variables and including them in the analysis Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of employing a double-blind study design?

To prevent experimenter bias and participant expectations Signup and view all the answers

In an experiment with repeated measures, why is it recommended to have two comparable versions of a questionnaire?

To avoid participants responding in the same way due to familiarity Signup and view all the answers

How can researchers reduce the impact of participant biases?

By ensuring consistent treatment across all participants Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

The Research Process

The research process is cyclical, starting with identifying a research area of interest and ending with writing up the findings.
It includes phases of literature review, study design, ethical approval, data collection, analysis, and report writing.
The research process is impacted by the Replication Crisis, which highlights difficulties in reproducing major psychological research findings.
Common problematic practices contributing to the Replication Crisis include small sample sizes, HARKing (Hypothesizing After the Results are Known), and p-hacking (repeatedly analyzing data in different ways).
The File Drawer Problem refers to studies with robust methodologies that fail to replicate previous findings, often remaining unpublished.
Pre-registration, where research proposals are submitted with detailed plans, is proposed as a solution to address the problematic practices.

Measuring Variables in Psychological Research

A variable is anything measurable or manipulable that provides data for analysis.
Operationalizing means defining precisely what you intend to measure.
Qualitative data is primarily textual, while quantitative data is numerical.
Four types of quantitative data exist:
- Nominal Data (categorical, extensive, discrete)

Developing Hypotheses for Experiments

Hypotheses can be two-tailed, predicting a difference without direction, or one-tailed, predicting which condition will exhibit significantly higher scores.
The choice between these types depends on the consistency of previous research and the novelty of the manipulation.
The number of hypotheses needed is influenced by the experimental design.

Dealing with Assumptions When Analysing Data Collected in Experiments

Parametric analyses have four key assumptions:
- Independent data collection
- Dependent variable measured at the interval or ratio level
- Data should be roughly normally distributed
- Homogeneity of variance across groups

Data Should Be (Roughly) Normally Distributed

Independent measures designs require examining distribution in each condition separately.
Non-parametric analysis is recommended if any condition deviates significantly from normal distribution.
In repeated measures designs, the difference scores should be normally distributed.

Homogeneity of Variance

This assumption is crucial in independent measures designs.
It ensures similar variability across groups within the design, indicating homogenous variances.
Variances should be close in magnitude, regardless of the actual variability present within the groups.
Violation of this assumption makes analyses and conclusions difficult.

Confounds in Research

Confounds are extraneous variables that may influence the dependent variable, leading to misleading results.
Counterbalancing strategies, like randomly allocating participants to different versions of a questionnaire or treatment order, can minimize the impact of confounds.

Analysis Strategies

Analyzing confounds can control their influence on the outcome.
If a confound explains a significant portion of the variance, the analysis should be adjusted to accurately interpret the experimental variance.

Validity & Reliability in Experiments

Validity refers to the confidence in measuring or manipulating what is intended.
Reliability ensures consistency in the measurement or manipulation.

Internal Validity

It ensures that no other variables contribute to the findings, allowing us to confidently attribute the results to the intended manipulation.
Experimenter and participant biases can threaten internal validity, requiring strategies like double-blind or single-blind studies to minimize these potential influences.

Test-retest Reliability in Repeated Measures Design

Measures used in repeated measures designs require test-retest reliability, meaning repeated measurements with the same measure should yield similar scores, assuming no significant change in the participants between measurements.

Ethics in Experiments

Participants must fully understand the research, including procedures, duration, risks, and potential return visits.
Consent is essential for ethical research, ensuring participants are aware of their involvement and possible consequences.

Simple Correlational Analysis

Simple correlational analysis examines the relationship between two continuous variables.
Regression models offer more flexibility, allowing for continuous and categorical variables as predictors.

Multiple Regression Analysis

Incorporates multiple predictors to predict an outcome variable, providing a more complete analysis.
Binary categorical predictors can be included in multiple regression.
Coding these variables as 0 and 1 helps interpret the analysis, indicating the impact of a one-point increase in the predictor on the outcome.

Ontological Questions

Explore the nature of reality and existence.

Objectivism

Views reality as existing independently of social actors, often associated with quantitative research.

Constructionism

Asserts that reality is constructed through social interactions and perceptions, aligning with qualitative research.

Emphasizes that knowledge is socially constructed by people.

Constructivism

Suggest that reality is subjectively constructed by individuals based on their cognitive processes.

Approaches to the Researcher’s Influence

Quantitative researchers seek to minimize researcher influence, aiming for objective knowledge separate from personal interpretation.
Qualitative research acknowledges and incorporates researcher influence, recognizing the subjective nature of understanding.

Phenomenology

Focuses on understanding and interpreting experiences.
Phenomenological psychology emphasizes the diversity of human experience, acknowledging the impossibility of completely eliminating researcher biases.
Interpretative phenomenology acknowledges the intricate relationship between researcher interpretation and the studied phenomenon, utilizing researcher assumptions and knowledge for deeper understanding.
Descriptive phenomenology prioritizes bracketing out researcher biases to achieve a pure understanding of the phenomenon.

Reflexivity

Qualitative researchers engage in reflexivity, critically examining their own thoughts, feelings, motivations, and assumptions to improve the understanding of their research.

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Description

Explore the cyclical research process in psychology, from identifying topics to report writing. This quiz discusses phases including literature review, ethical approval, and the impacts of the Replication Crisis on research practices. Test your understanding of variables and methodologies used in psychological studies.