Research Methods Quiz

Research Methods

• Aims: purpose of the investigation, can be correlational (investigate a link between variables) or experimental (investigate whether IV affects DV)
• Hypothesis: testable predicting statements, can be directional (predicting the direction of a relationship) or non-directional (predicting an effect but not the direction)
• Null hypothesis: a testable statement saying that any difference or correlation in the results is due to chance

Sampling Techniques

• Opportunity sampling: using participants who are available at the time, quicker and easier but low generalizability
• Volunteer sampling: using a request asking people to join, low drop-out rate but similar people may participate
• Random sampling: each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, likely to obtain a range of different ages and characteristics, can be generalized to other populations

Data

• Quantitative data: numerical, objective, easy to compare and analyze, but no in-depth information
• Qualitative data: descriptive, can express rather than limited by fixed choices, but subjective and not generalized

Data Analysis

• Measure of central tendency: mathematical way to find the typical or average score, includes mode, median, and mean
• Measure of spread: mathematical way to describe the variation within a data set, includes range and standard deviation

Graphs

• Bar chart: used for discrete categories and total or average scores, gaps between each bar
• Histogram: used for continuous data, shows distribution of scores, no gaps between bars
• Scatter graph: used to display data from a correlational study, each point represents a participant's score on each scale

Ethics

• Human participants: informed consent, no deception, debriefing, protection from harm, right to withdraw, confidentiality, and privacy
• Animal participants: replacement, species and strain, smallest number possible, procedure with minimal pain and distress, housing, reward, and certain veterinary procedures

Variables

• Dependent variable: the factor measured in an experiment, expected to change under the influence of the IV
• Independent variable: the factor manipulated by the experimenter, expected to cause a change in the DV
• Extraneous variables: any variables that can affect the DV (other than the IV), include participants, situational, and random variables### Systematic Variables and Controls
• Systematic variables: affect the dependent variable (DV) at only one level of the independent variable (IV) and can obscure the effect of the IV
• Confounding variables: variables that can affect the results and make them difficult to interpret
• Uncontrolled variables: variables that cannot be controlled by a researcher, including participants' variables and situational variables
• Operationalization: the process of defining variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured, or quantified and replicated

Controls

• Definition: ways to keep potential confounding variables constant
• Increased controls can prevent:
  • Demand characteristics: features of the experimental situation that give away the aims, causing participants to try to change their behavior
  • Order effects: consequences of doing tasks/tests more than once
• Can be overcome through counterbalancing

Evaluation

• Validity: the extent to which a researcher is testing what they claim to be testing
• Internal validity: the extent to which a study is free from confounding variables
• Reliability: the extent to which a procedure, task, or measure is consistent
• Generalizability and Representativeness:
  • Population: the entire group of people who could be used in the study
  • Sample: the participants who are used in the study, which should represent the population
  • Ecological validity: the extent to which the results can be generalized to real-life settings
  • Mundane realism: the extent to which the task is similar to real-life behavior

Experiment

• Definition: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an IV is manipulated and the DV is measured under the change of IV
• Conditions:
  • Experimental condition: one of the situations in an experiment that represents different levels of the IV
  • Control condition: a level of the IV in an experiment from which the IV is absent
• Experimental design: the way in which participants are allocated to levels of the IV
• Major Experimental Design Methods:
  • Repeated measures design: each participant does every level of the IV
  • Independent measures design: each participant only does one level of the IV
  • Matched pairs design: participants are arranged into pairs based on similarities and then one from each pair does each level of the IV

Observation

• Definition: a research method in which behavior is observed and recorded
• Types of observation:
  • Naturalistic: no manipulation or interference with the environment
  • Controlled: the researcher creates the setting and controls the opportunities for the participants' behavior
  • Structured: uses a checklist or rating scale to record behavior
  • Unstructured: records all behaviors without a predetermined focus
  • Covert: the participants are unaware of the observer's role
  • Overt: the observer's role is obvious to the participants
  • Participant: the researcher watches as part of the ongoing activity
  • Non-participant: the observer is not involved in the situation being studied

Issue and Debate

• Nature vs. Nurture: the debate about whether behavior, emotion, and cognition are the result of biological or environmental factors
• Individual vs. Situational explanations: the debate about whether behavior is the result of individual differences or situational factors

Biological Approach

• Definition: behavior, cognition, and emotion can be explained in terms of the working of the brain, the effect of hormones, genetics, and evolution
• Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interactions with other factors

Study Details: Dement and Kleitman (Brain Scan)

• Research question: to investigate if dream recall differs between REM and nREM stages of sleep
• Method:
  • Sample: 9 adults participants
  • Design: repeated measures design
  • Procedure: participants slept in a laboratory while their brain waves were recorded using EEG
• Results:
  • REM sleep: higher dream recall than nREM sleep
  • Positive correlation between REM duration and number of words in the dream narrative
  • Eye movements during REM sleep are directly related to dream imagery
• Conclusion:
  • Dreams probably occur only during REM sleep
  • Dreams reported when woken from nREM sleep are ones from previous REM episodes
  • Dreams are not instantaneous events but rather experienced in "real time"
  • Eye movements during REM sleep are not random, but are directly related to dream imagery

Evaluation of the Study

• Reliability: the study used standardized equipment and procedures, making it easy to replicate and test for reliability
• Validity: the study controlled for extraneous variables, making it more confident that the results are due to the stages of REM vs. nREM sleep
• Ethics: the study obtained informed consent, maintained confidentiality, and protected participants from physical harm

Holzel et al (Mindfulness and Brain Scan) -- New Study

• Research question: to investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation on brain structure and function
• Method:
  • Sample: participants practiced mindfulness meditation
  • Design: voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis
  • Procedure: participants underwent an MRI scan before and after mindfulness meditation training
• Results:
  • Increased grey matter concentration in the hippocampus and insula
  • Changes in brain structure were associated with changes in mindfulness skills
• Conclusion:
  • Mindfulness meditation can change brain structure and function
  • Increased grey matter concentration in the hippocampus and insula may be related to improved emotional regulation and attentionHere are the study notes for the text:

Non-Judging of Inner Experience

• 397-399: Non-judging of inner experience is a key concept in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)

Research Background

• 400-402: Previous research shows that neural systems are modifiable networks, and neural structure changes can occur in adults as a result of training, e.g., grey matter increases with abstract information acquisition and motor skills development
• 403-404: Hippocampus and insula regions are involved in structural changes and activation
• 405-407: Activation in these regions is associated with meditation practice

Research Aim and Methods

• 408-410: The aim of the study was to investigate the potential long-term effect of MBSR on brain grey matter concentration
• 411-413: Longitudinal design was used, with both MBSR and control groups scanned twice, 2 weeks apart
• 414-416: Independent measure design was used, with MBSR as the independent variable and grey matter concentration as the dependent variable
• 417-419: 33 healthy adults participated in the study, with 6 males and 10 females in the MBSR group and 11 males and 6 females in the control group
• 420-422: Participants completed FFMQ (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) and underwent MRI scans of the brain
• 423-425: Experimental group attended weekly MBSR sessions, while the control group did not receive MBSR

Results

• 426-428: MBSR group showed significant increases in grey matter concentration in certain brain regions
• 429-431: FFMQ scores also increased significantly in the MBSR group
• 432-434: No correlation was found between grey matter concentration increases and the amount of mindfulness homework completed

Conclusion

• 435-437: The study suggests that MBSR can lead to structural changes in the brain, particularly in regions involved in learning, memory, emotion regulation, and perspective-taking

Evaluation of the Research

• 438-440: Reliability of the study was high due to standardized procedures and objective measurement
• 441-443: Validity was high due to the use of a control group and longitudinal design
• 444-446: Generalizability was limited due to the small sample size and restricted demographic range

Issues and Debates

• 447-449: Nature vs. nurture debate: do biological factors or environmental influences affect brain structure and function?
• 450-452: Individual vs. situational factors: do individual differences or situational factors influence the effectiveness of MBSR?

Cognitive Approach

• 453-455: Cognitive approach focuses on information processing, memory, and thinking
• 456-458: Cognitive approach can explain behavior and emotions in terms of thinking processes, such as attention, memory, and language

Pozzulo et al. - New Study

• 459-461: False memory: how cognitive processes can lead to false memories

Note: The notes only cover the main points and do not include all the details from the original text.

Test your knowledge of research methods, covering topics such as the research process, sampling techniques, data analysis, and more. Evaluate your understanding of variables, controls, and ethics in research.