Questions and Answers
What is a piece of stored information that an individual believes to be accurate but may be influenced by later untrue information?
False memory
What is the term for the procedure where a witness is asked to identify the perpetrator from a selection of individuals?
Line-up
Which of the following best describes a false positive response?
Children are less likely than adults to say 'I don't know' when they are unsure of an answer.
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What was the aim of the studies conducted by Pozzulo & Lindsay?
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The sample consisted of children aged from ____ years.
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In the research method, what were the two line-up types identified?
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Adults performed better than children in identifying human faces.
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What percentage of children were accurate in identifying cartoon faces?
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What is the aim of an investigation?
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What are the types of hypotheses?
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Match the sampling techniques with their definitions:
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Qualitative data is always numerical.
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What was the number of adults participants in the study?
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What is the measure of central tendency?
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What is the IV (Independent Variable) in Study 1?
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What is the DV (Dependent Variable) in Study 1?
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What is the definition of informed consent?
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Dreams reported when woken from nREM sleep are ones from previous REM episodes.
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What does the term 'dependent variable' refer to?
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Which of the following describes 'naturalistic observation'?
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What was the percentage of dream recall in REM sleep compared to nREM sleep?
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What is a null hypothesis?
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What term refers to the accuracy of participants estimating 5 minutes in Study 2?
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Eye movements during REM sleep are not random, but are directly related to __________.
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Which brain area is involved in the processes impacted by mindfulness training?
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What is the mean age of the MBSR group participants?
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Female vervet monkeys exposed to prenatal androgens participated in less rough-and-tumble play than untreated controls.
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The type of experiment used in studying the toy preferences of rhesus monkeys was a __________ experiment.
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Study Notes
Research Methods
- Aims: purpose of the investigation, can be correlational (investigate a link between variables) or experimental (investigate whether IV affects DV)
- Hypothesis: testable predicting statements, can be directional (predicting the direction of a relationship) or non-directional (predicting an effect but not the direction)
- Null hypothesis: a testable statement saying that any difference or correlation in the results is due to chance
Sampling Techniques
- Opportunity sampling: using participants who are available at the time, quicker and easier but low generalizability
- Volunteer sampling: using a request asking people to join, low drop-out rate but similar people may participate
- Random sampling: each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected, likely to obtain a range of different ages and characteristics, can be generalized to other populations
Data
- Quantitative data: numerical, objective, easy to compare and analyze, but no in-depth information
- Qualitative data: descriptive, can express rather than limited by fixed choices, but subjective and not generalized
Data Analysis
- Measure of central tendency: mathematical way to find the typical or average score, includes mode, median, and mean
- Measure of spread: mathematical way to describe the variation within a data set, includes range and standard deviation
Graphs
- Bar chart: used for discrete categories and total or average scores, gaps between each bar
- Histogram: used for continuous data, shows distribution of scores, no gaps between bars
- Scatter graph: used to display data from a correlational study, each point represents a participant's score on each scale
Ethics
- Human participants: informed consent, no deception, debriefing, protection from harm, right to withdraw, confidentiality, and privacy
- Animal participants: replacement, species and strain, smallest number possible, procedure with minimal pain and distress, housing, reward, and certain veterinary procedures
Variables
- Dependent variable: the factor measured in an experiment, expected to change under the influence of the IV
- Independent variable: the factor manipulated by the experimenter, expected to cause a change in the DV
- Extraneous variables: any variables that can affect the DV (other than the IV), include participants, situational, and random variables### Systematic Variables and Controls
- Systematic variables: affect the dependent variable (DV) at only one level of the independent variable (IV) and can obscure the effect of the IV
- Confounding variables: variables that can affect the results and make them difficult to interpret
- Uncontrolled variables: variables that cannot be controlled by a researcher, including participants' variables and situational variables
- Operationalization: the process of defining variables so that they can be accurately manipulated, measured, or quantified and replicated
Controls
- Definition: ways to keep potential confounding variables constant
- Increased controls can prevent:
- Demand characteristics: features of the experimental situation that give away the aims, causing participants to try to change their behavior
- Order effects: consequences of doing tasks/tests more than once
- Can be overcome through counterbalancing
Evaluation
- Validity: the extent to which a researcher is testing what they claim to be testing
- Internal validity: the extent to which a study is free from confounding variables
- Reliability: the extent to which a procedure, task, or measure is consistent
- Generalizability and Representativeness:
- Population: the entire group of people who could be used in the study
- Sample: the participants who are used in the study, which should represent the population
- Ecological validity: the extent to which the results can be generalized to real-life settings
- Mundane realism: the extent to which the task is similar to real-life behavior
Experiment
- Definition: an investigation looking for a causal relationship in which an IV is manipulated and the DV is measured under the change of IV
- Conditions:
- Experimental condition: one of the situations in an experiment that represents different levels of the IV
- Control condition: a level of the IV in an experiment from which the IV is absent
- Experimental design: the way in which participants are allocated to levels of the IV
- Major Experimental Design Methods:
- Repeated measures design: each participant does every level of the IV
- Independent measures design: each participant only does one level of the IV
- Matched pairs design: participants are arranged into pairs based on similarities and then one from each pair does each level of the IV
Observation
- Definition: a research method in which behavior is observed and recorded
- Types of observation:
- Naturalistic: no manipulation or interference with the environment
- Controlled: the researcher creates the setting and controls the opportunities for the participants' behavior
- Structured: uses a checklist or rating scale to record behavior
- Unstructured: records all behaviors without a predetermined focus
- Covert: the participants are unaware of the observer's role
- Overt: the observer's role is obvious to the participants
- Participant: the researcher watches as part of the ongoing activity
- Non-participant: the observer is not involved in the situation being studied
Issue and Debate
- Nature vs. Nurture: the debate about whether behavior, emotion, and cognition are the result of biological or environmental factors
- Individual vs. Situational explanations: the debate about whether behavior is the result of individual differences or situational factors
Biological Approach
- Definition: behavior, cognition, and emotion can be explained in terms of the working of the brain, the effect of hormones, genetics, and evolution
- Similarities and differences between people can be understood in terms of biological factors and their interactions with other factors
Study Details: Dement and Kleitman (Brain Scan)
- Research question: to investigate if dream recall differs between REM and nREM stages of sleep
- Method:
- Sample: 9 adults participants
- Design: repeated measures design
- Procedure: participants slept in a laboratory while their brain waves were recorded using EEG
- Results:
- REM sleep: higher dream recall than nREM sleep
- Positive correlation between REM duration and number of words in the dream narrative
- Eye movements during REM sleep are directly related to dream imagery
- Conclusion:
- Dreams probably occur only during REM sleep
- Dreams reported when woken from nREM sleep are ones from previous REM episodes
- Dreams are not instantaneous events but rather experienced in "real time"
- Eye movements during REM sleep are not random, but are directly related to dream imagery
Evaluation of the Study
- Reliability: the study used standardized equipment and procedures, making it easy to replicate and test for reliability
- Validity: the study controlled for extraneous variables, making it more confident that the results are due to the stages of REM vs. nREM sleep
- Ethics: the study obtained informed consent, maintained confidentiality, and protected participants from physical harm
Holzel et al (Mindfulness and Brain Scan) -- New Study
- Research question: to investigate the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation on brain structure and function
- Method:
- Sample: participants practiced mindfulness meditation
- Design: voxel-based morphometry (VBM) analysis
- Procedure: participants underwent an MRI scan before and after mindfulness meditation training
- Results:
- Increased grey matter concentration in the hippocampus and insula
- Changes in brain structure were associated with changes in mindfulness skills
- Conclusion:
- Mindfulness meditation can change brain structure and function
- Increased grey matter concentration in the hippocampus and insula may be related to improved emotional regulation and attentionHere are the study notes for the text:
Non-Judging of Inner Experience
- 397-399: Non-judging of inner experience is a key concept in mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR)
Research Background
- 400-402: Previous research shows that neural systems are modifiable networks, and neural structure changes can occur in adults as a result of training, e.g., grey matter increases with abstract information acquisition and motor skills development
- 403-404: Hippocampus and insula regions are involved in structural changes and activation
- 405-407: Activation in these regions is associated with meditation practice
Research Aim and Methods
- 408-410: The aim of the study was to investigate the potential long-term effect of MBSR on brain grey matter concentration
- 411-413: Longitudinal design was used, with both MBSR and control groups scanned twice, 2 weeks apart
- 414-416: Independent measure design was used, with MBSR as the independent variable and grey matter concentration as the dependent variable
- 417-419: 33 healthy adults participated in the study, with 6 males and 10 females in the MBSR group and 11 males and 6 females in the control group
- 420-422: Participants completed FFMQ (Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire) and underwent MRI scans of the brain
- 423-425: Experimental group attended weekly MBSR sessions, while the control group did not receive MBSR
Results
- 426-428: MBSR group showed significant increases in grey matter concentration in certain brain regions
- 429-431: FFMQ scores also increased significantly in the MBSR group
- 432-434: No correlation was found between grey matter concentration increases and the amount of mindfulness homework completed
Conclusion
- 435-437: The study suggests that MBSR can lead to structural changes in the brain, particularly in regions involved in learning, memory, emotion regulation, and perspective-taking
Evaluation of the Research
- 438-440: Reliability of the study was high due to standardized procedures and objective measurement
- 441-443: Validity was high due to the use of a control group and longitudinal design
- 444-446: Generalizability was limited due to the small sample size and restricted demographic range
Issues and Debates
- 447-449: Nature vs. nurture debate: do biological factors or environmental influences affect brain structure and function?
- 450-452: Individual vs. situational factors: do individual differences or situational factors influence the effectiveness of MBSR?
Cognitive Approach
- 453-455: Cognitive approach focuses on information processing, memory, and thinking
- 456-458: Cognitive approach can explain behavior and emotions in terms of thinking processes, such as attention, memory, and language
Pozzulo et al. - New Study
- 459-461: False memory: how cognitive processes can lead to false memories
Note: The notes only cover the main points and do not include all the details from the original text.
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Test your knowledge of research methods, covering topics such as the research process, sampling techniques, data analysis, and more. Evaluate your understanding of variables, controls, and ethics in research.
