Research Methods Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is a key characteristic of the scientific method?

  • It is based solely on secondary research.
  • It does not require consensus among researchers.
  • It must follow subjective reasoning.
  • It requires explicit procedures that are open to inspection. (correct)

Poppers hypothetico-deductive scheme is primarily concerned with primary research only.

False (B)

What is the primary focus of critical discourse analysis?

The ways social and political domination are reproduced by language.

Participants must provide __________ consent to participate in a research study.

<p>informed</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of interview with its description:

<p>Structured interviews = Use a specific set of questions to maintain consistency Semi-structured interviews = Combine a list of questions with flexibility Unstructured interviews = Focus on participant-driven discussions without strict control Focus groups = Involve small groups discussing a topic to gather insights</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of structured interviews?

<p>They lack flexibility. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anonymity means that researchers can identify participants despite the study.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one major risk researchers must avoid when conducting studies involving human participants?

<p>Risk of harm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Confidentiality means that participant information will not be shared with anyone __________ involved with the study.

<p>not</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of interview aims to maintain a casual quality while ensuring reliability?

<p>Semi-structured interviews (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling method involves selecting every nth subject from a population?

<p>Systematic sampling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Increasing the size of a sample guarantees increased precision in the results.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a control group in experiments?

<p>To provide a baseline for comparison against the experimental group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The __________ is the estimated range of values likely to include an unknown parameter.

<p>confidence interval</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the sampling method with its description:

<p>Simple random sampling = Each unit has an equal chance of selection Stratified random sampling = Divides population into strata and samples from each Convenience sampling = Subjects selected based on accessibility Snowball sampling = Initial contact leads to referrals for further subjects</p> Signup and view all the answers

In statistical inference, what is the primary objective?

<p>Reach conclusions about a population (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Purposive sampling selects subjects based solely on random chance.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of non-response on sampling?

<p>It can introduce bias and affect the representativeness of the sample.</p> Signup and view all the answers

A __________ sample is chosen from already predefined groups.

<p>cluster random</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of a heterogeneous population?

<p>High variation among units (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of variable can be ranked but lacks equal distances between categories?

<p>Ordinal variables (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dependent variables are controlled and manipulated by the researcher.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of operationalization in research?

<p>The process of identifying empirical indicators and creating research instruments to measure concepts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The measure of central tendency that represents the most frequent value is called the ______.

<p>mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following terms with their appropriate definitions:

<p>Independent variables = Variables that are controlled and manipulated Dependent variables = Variables that are measured and vary in relation to independent variables Population = The universe of units from which the sample is selected Sample = A segment of the population selected for investigation</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'sample bias' refer to?

<p>Distortion in the representativeness of the sample (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A representative sample accurately reflects the entire population it is drawn from.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics?

<p>Descriptive statistics summarize and describe data, whereas inferential statistics extend conclusions beyond immediate data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In statistics, the difference between the maximum and minimum value in a data set is known as the ______.

<p>range</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does standard deviation measure?

<p>The spread of values from the mean (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary advantage of guided conversations in research?

<p>Provides insight into personal stories (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ethnography focuses solely on historical events and practices.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does content analysis involve?

<p>A systematic examination and interpretation of material to identify patterns and meanings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Access to Information Act in Canada allows citizens to request access to any _____ under the control of a federal government institution.

<p>record</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following types of surveys with their correct descriptions:

<p>Cross-sectional = A snapshot of a population at one point in time Longitudinal = Tracking changes over time within the same population Trend study = Tracking changes across different populations Panel study = Tracking changes with the same group of individuals over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one disadvantage of guided conversations?

<p>Data can be hard to analyze (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Moderators in guided conversations should possess strong facilitation skills.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is reliability in the context of social research?

<p>The extent to which a study yields consistent results on repeated trials.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ethnomethodology focuses on the _____ behind everyday actions and language use.

<p>codes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common challenge with historical research?

<p>Understanding behaviors of individuals in the past (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Surveys prioritize depth of information over breadth of information.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of high face validity in research?

<p>It indicates that the research measures appear relevant and credible to the participants.</p> Signup and view all the answers

In social research, _____ refers to how distorted the contents of a document are.

<p>credibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key component in assessing documents for social research?

<p>Availability and access (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the type of claim with its description:

<p>Descriptive claims = Provides an account of what is happening Explanatory claims = Explains reasons behind certain observations Evaluative claims = Assesses the importance or quality of findings Reformist claims = Suggests changes based on research findings</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Scientific Method

A structured approach to research that relies on logical reasoning, explicit procedures, and transparency.

Primary Research

Research conducted by the researcher firsthand through direct observation and study.

Secondary Research

Research based on existing data collected by others, used to analyze a topic or make an argument.

Conversation Analysis

A method of studying the unspoken rules that guide social interactions, focusing on the structure of conversations.

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Discourse Analysis

Examining how language constructs social reality and its effects, extending beyond spoken words to include visuals.

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Critical Discourse Analysis

An interdisciplinary approach that analyzes how language perpetuates social and political power structures.

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Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed about the study's procedures and risks before agreeing to participate.

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Structured Interviews

Interviews with a predetermined set of questions, providing consistency and reliability.

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Semi-structured Interviews

Interviews with a planned list of questions but allowing for flexibility and exploring new topics.

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Unstructured Interviews

Interviews that allow for open-ended questions and spontaneous exploration of topics.

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Operationalization

The process of defining abstract concepts into measurable variables. It essentially bridges the gap between theoretical ideas and empirical research.

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Independent Variable

The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

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Dependent Variable

The factor that is measured or observed in response to changes in the independent variable.

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Nominal Variable

Categorical data where categories have no inherent order or ranking. They are simply different.

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Ordinal Variable

Categorical data where categories can be ranked, but the distances between them are not equal or known.

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Interval/Ratio Variable

Data where categories have a defined order and equal intervals between them.

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Correlation

A relationship where two variables change together, but one doesn't necessarily cause the other.

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Causation

A relationship where one variable directly influences the other.

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Spurious Relationship

When two variables appear related, but the connection is actually caused by a third, unmeasured factor.

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Mean

The average of a dataset, found by adding all values and then dividing by the number of values.

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Sampling error

The difference between a sample and the population from which it's selected. It reflects the accuracy of a sample in representing its source population.

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Probability sample

A sample selected using a random method, ensuring each member of a population has a known chance of being chosen. This allows for statistical generalizability.

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Simple random sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected. Like a lottery draw, each ticket has the same chance of winning.

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Systematic sampling

Selecting every nth unit from a population. This is like choosing every 10th person in a line.

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Stratified random sampling

Dividing the population into subgroups (strata) based on shared characteristics and then selecting a random sample from each stratum.

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Multi-stage cluster sampling

A hierarchical method. First, clusters are selected, then smaller clusters within those, and so on, until individuals within the final clusters are sampled.

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Sample size

The number of individuals or units included in a sample. A bigger sample generally provides better representation of the population.

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Sampling bias

A systematic error in the sample selection process, leading to an unrepresentative sample. This can be due to factors like accessibility or self-selection.

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Convenience sample

A sample selected based on ease of access. This is like asking your friends for opinions on a product.

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Non-probability sampling

Sampling methods where members of the population don't have a known chance of being selected. This doesn't allow for generalizability.

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Focus Group

A guided or unguided discussion with a small group of people, focusing on a specific topic relevant to the research. It is meant to collect qualitative data and gain insights through group interaction.

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Moderator

The facilitator of a focus group who guides the discussion, encourages open dialogue, and ensures everyone participates.

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Advantages of Focus Groups

Focus groups offer rich content and depth, help assess pre-designed research topics, provide insights into personal stories and life structures, are flexible and have high face validity, and yield quick results at low cost.

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Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Focus groups can be an unnatural setting, limited to verbal responses, less controlled than interviews, difficult to analyze data, require skilled moderators, and potential for group differences affecting reliability and generalizability.

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Historical Research

A research method that focuses on understanding how specific individuals behaved in the past and how events and practices came to be.

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Policy and Case Analysis

A research method that examines specific individuals, social groups, or processes in the present day. It uses descriptive, interpretive, explanatory, evaluative, and reformist claims to understand current situations.

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Ethnography

A research method where a researcher immerses themself within a group for an extended period, observing behavior, listening to conversations, and asking questions. This approach aims to understand people's behavior within the context of their culture.

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Key Informants

Individuals within a community who are chosen by other members to represent the group and provide insights during ethnographic research.

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Ethnomethodology

A research method focusing on the underlying codes and unconscious belief systems that shape our actions and communication. It analyzes everyday behaviors, language, and actions to uncover these hidden structures.

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Content Analysis

A systematic examination and interpretation of written documents, photos, videos, or other media to identify patterns, themes, biases, and meanings.

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Criteria for Assessing Documents

Evaluating documents through authenticity (genuine), credibility (accuracy), sincerity (bias detection), and meaning (interpretation). These criteria ensure the reliability and validity of document-based research.

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Reliability

The consistency and repeatability of a study, test, or measurement procedure. A reliable study produces similar results when repeated.

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Validity

The accuracy of a study in measuring the concepts or phenomena it intends to assess. A valid study measures what it claims to measure.

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Survey

A research method that uses questionnaires or interviews with a large sample of individuals, often focusing on close-ended questions to gain broad but less deep understanding of a population.

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Cross-sectional Survey

A survey that collects data at one specific point in time, providing a snapshot of the population's characteristics at that moment.

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Longitudinal Survey

A survey that tracks changes in the same population over time. This method allows researchers to examine trends and patterns over a period.

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Study Notes

Research Methods Overview

  • Research Process Stages: Epistemology, Literature Review, Theorization, Hypothesis/Questions, Research Design, Ethics, Data Collection & Analysis, Findings & Theorization.
  • Scientific Method: Follows a logical, explicit procedure open to scrutiny, with a consensus on assumptions and procedures. Popper's hypothetico-deductive scheme is a form of this.
  • Primary Research: Researcher's firsthand observation and study.
  • Secondary Research: Uses conclusions or arguments developed by others.
  • Conversation Analysis: Derives from ethnomethodology, studying taken-for-granted social interaction rules.
  • Discourse Analysis: Broader than talk, analyzing language and image to understand how language shapes social reality.
  • Critical Discourse Analysis: Interdisciplinary approach seeing language as social practice, focusing on how power and language are linked, and studying how domination appears through text and talk.
  • Producing Ethical Research: Crucial ethical considerations include voluntary participation, informed consent, avoiding harm (physical and psychological), maintaining confidentiality and anonymity, and respecting privacy.

Qualitative Research Methods

  • Interviews:
    • Structured: Uses a standardized interview schedule, reducing bias, and increasing reliability and validity. Simple, cost-effective, but less flexible.
    • Semi-structured: Combines structured and unstructured approaches, offering flexibility and validity, but prone to biases like leading questions and social desirability bias.
    • Unstructured: Highly flexible, allowing for in-depth exploration and revealing valuable detail. However, potentially limited in generalizability and reliability.
  • Focus Groups: Involve small groups discussing a topic to gain insights, providing depth and multiple perspectives, non-reactive data. Requires a skilled moderator, but can be less controlled than interviews.
  • Ethnography: A method where the researcher immerses themselves in a group for an extended period, using observation, interviews, and other methods to understand cultural behavior within context. Highly reflexive and uses multiple techniques.
  • Ethnomethodology: Studies cultural codes and unconscious beliefs through analyzing interactions. Useful for analyzing media and intercultural communication.

Quantitative Research Methods

  • Historical/Policy/Case Study Analysis: Examining how realities or past practices took shape or current individuals/processes. (Descriptive, interpretive, explanatory, evaluative claims).
  • Content Analysis: Careful, systematic examination of material (writings, images, etc.) to identify patterns, themes, or biases.
  • Surveys: Large sample, close-ended questions; provides broad information.
  • Cross-sectional: Snapshot in time.
  • Longitudinal: Tracks changes over time.
  • Trend study: Tracks changes in a population.
  • Panel study: Tracks changes in the same people.
  • Sampling: Techniques for selecting a representative subset of a population.
    • Probability samples: Simple random, systematic, stratified random, and multistage cluster sample.
    • Non-probability samples: Convenience, purposive, snowball, and quota.
  • Experiments: Attempt to prove or disprove hypotheses by manipulating independent variables in controlled groups (often with pretest and posttest).
  • Operationalization: Turning abstract concepts into measurable variables.
  • Variables:
    • Independent Variables: Manipulated to see their impact.
    • Dependent Variables: Affected by independent variables.
  • Data Analysis: Descriptive statistics (mean, median, mode, standard deviation, range) and inferential analysis (relating samples to populations).

Research Considerations

  • Ethical Research: Participants are voluntary, informed of risks and procedures, and protected from harm (physical, psychological). Confidentiality, anonymity, and privacy are paramount.
  • Data Validation: Authenticity, credibility, sincerity, and meaning of documents or material being analyzed.
  • Assessment Criteria: Authenticity, credibility, sincerity, meaning.
  • Sampling Error: The difference between sample and the population.
  • Reliability and Validity: Reliability is consistency, while validity is accuracy in measuring the intended concept.
  • Operationalization: Defining abstract concepts in concrete terms for measurement.

Key Terminology

  • Qualitative/Quantitative: Different approaches to gathering and analyzing data.
  • Data: Information collected for analysis.
  • Empirical: Based on observation or experience.
  • Primary/Secondary research: Original/existing research.
  • Concepts: Abstract ideas.
  • Variables: Characteristics that vary.
  • Causation/Correlation: Relationships between variables.
  • Sampling: Selecting a group of subjects to represent a larger population.
  • Bias: Systematic distortion in research.
  • Generalizability: Applicability of findings to a larger population.
  • Representativeness: Accuracy of a sample in reflecting the entire population.
  • Validity/Reliability: Accuracy and consistency of research.
  • Statistical measures: Means, medians, modes, standard deviations, ranges.

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Description

Explore the stages of the research process, including epistemology, literature review, and ethical considerations. This quiz also delves into primary and secondary research methods, conversation analysis, and critical discourse analysis. Test your knowledge of the principles that guide scientific inquiry and data evaluation.

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