Research Methods in Social Sciences
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Questions and Answers

What is a primary characteristic of participant observation in research?

  • The researcher only uses data previously collected by others.
  • The researcher analyzes numerical data from surveys.
  • The researcher takes part in the daily life of the subjects. (correct)
  • The researcher remains completely detached from the subjects.

Which of the following is a limitation of secondary analysis in research?

  • It is generally too expensive to conduct.
  • It relies on data that may not adequately address the research question. (correct)
  • The researcher has complete control over the data collection process.
  • It always includes a large sample size.

What does meta-analysis primarily focus on in research?

  • Conducting new experimental studies.
  • Combining results from previous studies to assess overall trends. (correct)
  • Using qualitative data from interviews.
  • Analysing individual case studies in detail.

What is one benefit of conducting secondary analysis?

<p>It is cost effective as it uses pre-existing data. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do social researchers test hypotheses?

<p>To explore potential relationships and validate theories. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the equation used to calculate the size of a class interval?

<p>i = U - L (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is the midpoint of a class interval calculated?

<p>m = (lowest score + highest score) / 2 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does cumulative frequency represent?

<p>The total number of cases having a given score or lower (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula for calculating cumulative percentage?

<p>c % = (cf / N) * 100 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the notation cf stand for in statistics?

<p>Cumulative frequency (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage is represented by the cumulative percentage for the class interval of 75-79 in the referenced data?

<p>16.90% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the upper limit of the class interval 60-64?

<p>64 (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If the total frequency of students is 71, what percentage of students scored in the class interval 90-94?

<p>2.82% (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the standard deviation measure in a distribution?

<p>The average variability in the distribution (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the value of the standard deviation when variability increases?

<p>It increases (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the formula for the coefficient of variation (CV)?

<p>CV = 100 * (s / X) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the coefficient of variation useful?

<p>It compares variability between measurements in different units (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes a characteristic of the normal curve?

<p>It is bell-shaped and symmetrical (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the multiplication rule of probability indicate?

<p>It calculates the likelihood of independent events occurring together (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a probability of P=0 imply?

<p>The event is impossible to occur (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which rule provides the probability of one of several different outcomes occurring?

<p>Addition Rule (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the area under the normal curve?

<p>100% of the total probability (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who are typically considered the producers of social research?

<p>Academics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a variable in social research?

<p>A characteristic that varies among individuals or over time (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an independent variable in social research?

<p>The presumed cause in a causal relationship (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of a control group in an experiment?

<p>To compare against the experimental group (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the probability of getting heads on one flip after flipping a coin twice?

<p>0.5 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research involves recording effects after independent variables have occurred?

<p>Retrospective Research (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes an experimental group from a control group?

<p>The experimental group is manipulated while the control group is not. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If you flip a coin twice, what is the probability of getting heads on both flips?

<p>0.25 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the normal curve?

<p>Unimodal (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a benefit of conducting surveys?

<p>Establishment of cause and effect relationships (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does content analysis primarily focus on?

<p>Describing and analyzing existing messages (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a z score indicate in statistics?

<p>The distance from the mean (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the area under the normal curve equal to?

<p>100% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes a constant?

<p>A factor that does not vary among individuals or time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When calculating a z score, what formula is used?

<p>$z = \frac{X - \mu}{\sigma}$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who among the following is typically considered a consumer of social research?

<p>Policymakers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of distribution do some variables exhibit instead of the normal curve?

<p>All of the above (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the mean, median, and mode represent in a normal distribution?

<p>They are all identical. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can you determine the probability of obtaining any raw score in a distribution?

<p>Combining z scores with the normal curve. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one negative consequence of assuming normality in data that is not normally distributed?

<p>Impact on the validity of conclusions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the mode of the following data set: 15, 15, 17, 18, 18, 18, 20?

<p>18 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which measure of central tendency is appropriate for nominal-level variables?

<p>Mode (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do you calculate the position of the median in a dataset with an odd number of cases?

<p>N / 2 + 1 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about quartiles?

<p>They divide a distribution into 4 equal parts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

When should you use column percents in a cross-tabulation?

<p>When the independent variable is on the columns. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a bimodal distribution?

<p>A dataset with exactly two modes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the formula for calculating the mean, what does X represent?

<p>The sum of the scores. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding deviations from the mean?

<p>The sum of deviations above and below the mean is zero. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the median of the sorted data set: 3, 1, 4, 2, 5?

<p>3 (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the mean?

<p>The average value of the scores. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a dataset has the scores 10, 20, 30, 40, what is the mean?

<p>25 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a distribution with five values, how do you ascertain the position of the median?

<p>N + 1 / 2 (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred from a data set where the mode, median, and mean are all equal?

<p>The distribution is symmetric. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Variable

A characteristic that can change or vary from one individual to another or from one point in time to another.

Constant

A characteristic that does not change or vary from one individual to another or from one point in time to another.

Unit of Observation

The element that is being studied or observed in research.

Hypothesis

A statement that proposes a relationship between two or more variables.

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Independent Variable

The presumed cause in a hypothesis. It is manipulated by the researcher.

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Dependent Variable

The presumed effect or outcome in a hypothesis. It is the variable that is measured.

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Experiment

A type of research that involves manipulating one or more variables to observe their effect on an outcome.

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Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the manipulation or treatment of the independent variable.

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Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the manipulation or treatment of the independent variable. It serves as a baseline for comparison.

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Retrospective Research

A type of research that gathers information after the events or variables of interest have already occurred.

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Participant Observation

Research where the researcher actively participates in the daily lives of the people being studied, either openly or secretly.

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Secondary Analysis

Research that utilizes data collected by another researcher, often for cost-effectiveness.

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Meta-Analysis

A research method that combines the results from multiple previous studies to draw a stronger conclusion.

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Effect Size

A measurable effect or relationship between variables, used in meta-analysis to assess the strength of a finding.

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Why Do Social Researchers Test Hypotheses?

Social researchers test hypotheses to rigorously examine their research questions and confirm or refute relationships between variables.

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Class Limit

The point halfway between adjacent intervals in a grouped frequency distribution.

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Midpoint

The middlemost score value in a class interval.

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Cumulative Frequency

The total number of cases having a given score or a score that is lower.

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Cumulative Percentage

The percentage of cases having a given score or a score that is lower.

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Grouped Frequency Distribution

A table that organizes data into classes or intervals and shows the frequency or percentage of cases in each class.

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Class Interval Size

The size of a class interval, which is the distance between the upper and lower limits of the interval.

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Upper Limit

The upper limit of a class interval.

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Lower Limit

The lower limit of a class interval.

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Mode

The most frequently occurring value in a distribution.

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Median

The middlemost case in a distribution. Appropriate for ordinal or interval level data.

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Mean

The 'center of gravity' of a distribution. Appropriate for interval level data.

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Deviation

The distance and direction of any raw score from the mean. Deviation = X - X bar.

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Deciles

Points that divide a distribution into 10 equally sized portions.

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Quartiles

Points that divide a distribution into quarters.

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Median

The point that divides a distribution in two, half above it and half below it.

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Cross Tabulation

A table that displays the relationship between two nominal or ordinal variables.

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Percentile

The percentage of cases that fall at or below a given score.

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Percents within Cross Tabulations

Total percent = (100 * f ) / Ntotal; Row percent = (100 * f ) / Nrow; Column percent = (100 * f ) / Ncolumn.

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Measure of Central Tendency

The use of a single number to represent a whole set of data.

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Bimodal Distribution

A distribution with two modes.

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Weighted Mean

The mean calculated by weighting each score by its frequency of occurrence.

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Bar Chart

A graphical representation of a distribution that uses bars to show the frequency of each category of a variable.

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Line Chart

A graphical representation of a distribution that uses lines to connect points that represent the frequency of each score or category.

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Probability of one heads in two flips

The probability that one flip in two flips will land on heads.

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Probability Distribution

A distribution based on probability theory, analogous to a frequency distribution.

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Normal Curve

A smooth, symmetrical, unimodal distribution with mean, median, and mode being equal. It is infinite in both directions and represents a probability distribution.

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Reality of the Normal Curve

A theoretical ideal that represents the distribution of many variables in nature. However, some variables do not conform to it.

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Z Score

It represents the area under the normal curve for any sigma distance from the mean. It indicates the direction and distance a raw score deviates from the mean in sigma units.

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Finding Probability using Normal Curve and Z Score

The process of determining the probability of obtaining any raw score (X) in a distribution using the normal curve, z scores, and a table.

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Standard Scores and the Normal Curve

It is useful in determining the probability of obtaining any raw score (X) in a distribution. This can be reversed to calculate score values from particular areas or percentages.

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Standard Deviation

The average variability in a distribution, calculated as the average deviation from the mean. A larger standard deviation indicates greater variability.

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Coefficient of Variation

A statistical measure that compares the variability of two or more characteristics measured in different units. It is calculated as the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean, expressed as a percentage.

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Box Plot

A visual representation of data that displays the distribution of values using a box, whiskers, and individual points.

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Probability

The relative likelihood of a specific outcome occurring in a given situation.

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Rules of Probability

A set of rules that govern the calculation and understanding of probabilities.

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Area Under the Normal Curve

The area under the normal curve represents the probability of a specific range of values occurring.

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Study Notes

Chapter 1: Why the Social Researcher Uses Statistics

  • Social research utilizes statistics to organize raw data and test hypotheses. Raw data can be difficult to synthesize, while frequency tables simplify understanding.

  • The consumers and producers of social research include the general public, agency administrators, policymakers, academics, private sector investigators, and government agencies.

  • The chapter discusses various types of research, such as experiments, surveys, content analysis, participant observation, secondary analysis, and meta-analysis. Each method has unique features and benefits, and limitations.

  • Experiments manipulate one or more independent variables to observe their impact. Experimental and control groups are randomly assigned to eliminate initial differences.

  • Surveys collect data by recording the effects of independent variables on dependent variables. They are flexible and can examine multiple variables. Establishing cause-and-effect relationships is not as straightforward as in experiments.

  • Content analysis examines previously produced messages by objectively describing the content of books, magazines, newspapers, films, and other media.

  • Participant observation involves the researcher participating in the daily lives of the people being studied, either openly or covertly.

  • Secondary analysis uses data previously collected by other researchers, offering cost-effectiveness but potentially limited scope.

  • Meta-analysis combines results from multiple prior studies to provide a comprehensive understanding, often using effect sizes to quantify the strength of relationships.

Chapter 2: Organizing the Data

  • Formulas and statistical techniques organize raw data to test hypotheses. Frequency tables systematically present data.

  • Frequency distributions of nominal data consist of a title displaying data along with its frequency.

  • Comparisons clarify results. Researchers use various data organization methods, including calculating frequency distributions, proportions, percentages, ratios, and rates.

  • Proportions calculate the number of cases relative to the total distribution size, while percentages account for the occurrence of each category per 100.

  • Ratios compare frequencies between different categories. Rates quantify the proportion between actual and potential cases.

  • Simple frequency and grouped frequency distributions simplify interval data's presentation for easier comprehension.

  • Cross-tabulations display how two categorical variables relate through frequency counts and percentages.

  • Different types of graphs, like pie charts and histograms, visually interpret data.

Chapter 3: Measures of Central Tendency

  • Researchers utilize measures of central tendency, such as mode, median, and mean, to identify typical or average values within a data set. Mode represents the most frequent value, and it is suitable for nominal data.

  • The median is the middle data point in an organized data set, appropriate for ordinal and interval data.

  • The mean is the arithmetic average, representing the overall center of gravity in a data set, suitable for interval level data.

  • Weighted mean calculates a comprehensive mean across multiple groups.

Chapter 4: Measures of Variability

  • Measures of variability, such as range, interquartile range, variance, standard deviation, and coefficient of variation, provide information on how data points diverge from the central tendency.

  • The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores.

  • The interquartile range (IQR) displays the spread of the middle 50% of data.

  • The variance and standard deviation quantify the dispersion of scores around the mean, with the standard deviation showing the average spread.

  • Box plots are visual tools for illustrating data distribution, including quartiles, median, and outliers.

Chapter 5: Probability and the Normal Curve

  • Probability describes the likelihood of an event or outcome occurring.

  • Probability distribution, analog to frequency distributions, describes probabilities of different outcomes.

  • The normal curve represents a theoretical distribution. It is symmetrical, unimodal, and has a specific mean and standard deviation.

  • The area under the normal curve represents 100% of the data. Specific proportions are associated with various sigma distances from the mean.

  • Z-scores enable researchers to translate raw scores into standard deviations from the mean, allowing for comparison to a standardized normal distribution.

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Chapter 1: The Nature of Social Research PDF

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This quiz explores key concepts in social research methods, including participant observation, secondary analysis, and meta-analysis. Test your understanding of the advantages and limitations of various research techniques used in social sciences.

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