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Questions and Answers
What best describes the primary effect in decision making?
What does the recency effect refer to in cognitive psychology?
Which concept explains why people may remember mistakes more vividly than successes?
How do contrast effects influence an evaluation process?
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What is a hallmark of halo error in assessments?
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Which effect describes how high expectations can lead to better performance outcomes?
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What role does belief perseverance play in decision-making?
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What scenario best illustrates the availability bias?
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Which of the following statements accurately describes extraversion?
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How does neuroticism relate to emotional stability?
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What is a key characteristic of machine learning algorithms?
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In what way does agreeableness impact interpersonal interactions?
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What is the primary purpose of a meta-analysis?
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Which trait is often linked with effective leadership?
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Which of the following describes reliability in measurement?
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How do stable behaviors correlate with the Big 5 Personality Traits?
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What characterizes individuals with high agreeableness?
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How do values influence individual behavior?
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Which of the following best defines shyness?
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What is the difference between datum and data?
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Which of the following traits may lead to being seen as rude or confrontational?
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Which of the following best describes causation?
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Which statement accurately reflects the role of values in workplace satisfaction?
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What does high internal validity in research indicate?
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Which values are considered terminal values according to Rokeach Value Survey?
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Which of the following core job characteristics contribute to feeling that one's work is meaningful?
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What psychological state is achieved when individuals feel they have control over the outcomes of their work?
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According to the Job Characteristics Theory, what does feedback provide to employees?
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Which dimension from Psychological Empowerment reflects a person's belief in their capability to perform tasks?
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What outcome is NOT directly impacted by the job characteristics model?
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Which of the following does NOT pertain to one of the four dimensions of psychological empowerment?
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What does the impact dimension of psychological empowerment convey?
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Which of the following describes the function of autonomy in the job characteristics model?
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What does embeddedness in an organization primarily summarize?
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Which factor is NOT part of the performance equation?
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What are intrinsic motivations primarily based on?
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Which theory emphasizes fair treatment as a key to motivation?
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What does motivation determine according to the content?
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Which of the following is NOT one of Maslow’s hierarchy needs?
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What additional aspect does ERG theory introduce compared to Maslow's hierarchy?
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What is NOT considered an environmental factor in the performance equation?
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Study Notes
Controlled Experiments
- Can often help determine causal relationships, rather than correlational relationships.
- High degree of internal validity, but potentially low generalizability.
Machine Learning
- Traditional data analysis is sometimes not feasible with the availability of big data.
- Machine learning algorithms generate models based on available data, and update as new information becomes available.
- Can be used to simulate what respondents might say or do.
Meta-Analysis
- Summarizes findings from other researchers on a given topic.
- Variables from multiple studies are weighted and analyzed to determine if the effect holds or not.
- Only possible if sufficient research has been done on the topic.
Surveys
- One of the primary methods management researchers use to learn about organizational behavior.
- Involves asking individuals to respond to a number of open-ended or close-ended questions.
Reliability vs Validity
- Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement.
- Validity refers to whether the measure captures what it intends to measure.
Correlation and Causation
- Correlation means that two things co-vary.
- Causation is the act of making something happen.
Datum vs Data
- Datum is used when you have only one observation.
- Data refers to multiple observations.
- Big data refers to the volume, variety, velocity, and veracity of data.
Values
- Stable life goals that people have, reflecting what is most important to them.
- Can affect the types of decisions people make and their behaviors.
- Can impact how people perceive their environment.
- The Rokeach Value Survey assesses individual values.
- Terminal values refer to end states people desire in life.
- Instrumental values refer to views on acceptable modes of conduct.
- Values are shaped early in life, but can change in response to historical context.
Personality
- Explains differences in how people behave in organizations, the types of careers they choose, job satisfaction, stress handling, and effectiveness as leaders.
The Big 5 Personality Traits
- These are your default behaviors that tend to emerge across contexts.
- Tend to be stable across time.
- Validated across cultures.
- Extraversion: Assess the tendency to seek social interaction and stimulation.
- Introverts: Quiet, deliberative.
- Extraverts: Outgoing, bold.
- Shyness ≠ Introversion.
- Shyness is the fear of negative judgment.
- Extroversion seems to matter more in jobs where the rules of behavior are ill-defined (e.g., leadership, sales).
- Agreeableness: Disagreeable vs. Agreeable
- Tendency to challenge vs. accommodate others.
- Disagreeable: Strengths: Speaking up/out, holding firm on beliefs. Vulnerabilities: Seen as rude or confrontational, failing to pick battles.
- Agreeable: Strengths: Promoting positive interaction, appeasing, gaining consensus, teamwork. Vulnerabilities: Becoming a pushover, compromising important values.
- Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): Degree to which a person is anxious, irritable, temperamental, and moody.
- Low neuroticism (high emotional stability): Better at self-regulating emotions, may underreact in situations.
- High neuroticism (low emotional stability): Tendency towards anxiety, tend to prepare (lots of overlap with perfectionism), often overreact or infer ulterior motives.
- Conscientiousness: Degree to which a person is responsible, dependable, persistent, and achievement-oriented
- High conscientiousness: Greater sense of purpose, high levels of self-control, high levels of self-discipline
- Low conscientiousness: Lack of motivation to reach goals, procrastination, unreliable, inconsistent
- Openness to Experience: The degree to which a person is imaginative, curious, and open to new ideas.
- High openness: More open to new experiences, more willing to experiment, more willing to take risks.
- Low openness: Less open to new experiences, more traditional, more closed-minded.
Perception
- The process by which individuals organize and interpret sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
- Often influenced by:
- The perceiver
- The target being perceived
- The situation
- Can be affected by:
- Attributions
- Selective perception
- Halo effect
- Contrast effects
- Availability bias
- Primary effect
- Recency effect
Primary effect
- Belief perseverance: Once a person has formed an initial impression, they maintain it even when presented with concrete evidence that it is false.
- Example: First impressions.
Recency Effect
- People not only remember what they experience first, but they also remember the most recently presented items or experiences.
- Example: Remembering the last thing mentioned in an interview.
Availability Bias
- When a person's judgments are based on what most readily comes to mind.
- Example: How easy is it to recall a person's mistakes over the course of a year versus their success? We encode negative memories in much greater detail and in long-term memory.
- Examples: "People are saying the stock market is way up, let’s buy now!” "I heard there were shark attacks recently, let’s avoid the beach because it’s dangerous."
Contrast Effects
- We do not evaluate a person in isolation.
- Our reaction to one person is influenced by other people we have recently encountered.
- Example: An interview situation in which one sees a pool of job applicants can distort perception. Distortions in any given candidate's evaluation can occur as a result of his or her place in the interview schedule.
Halo Error
- Halo (or its opposite, horns) error occurs when a rater's overall positive (or negative) impression strongly influences ratings of specific attributes.
- Example: Performance appraisals and liking.
Pygmalion Effect
- Perceptions sometimes result in a self-fulfilling prophecy in which high expectations of performance by leaders actually create conditions in which followers succeed.
- Self-fulfilling prophecy or Pygmalion effect characterizes the fact that people's expectations determine their behavior.
Embeddedness
- Summarizes a person's links to the organization and the community, sense of fit with that organization and community, and what he would have to sacrifice for a job change.
- Strengthens continuance commitment by providing more reasons why a person needs to stay in his current position (and more sources of anxiety if he were to leave).
- Three components:
- Links
- Fit
- Sacrifice
Performance Equation
- Performance = Motivation x Ability x Environment.
- Motivation: The desire to achieve a goal or a certain performance level, leading to goal-directed behavior.
- Ability: Having the skills and knowledge required to perform the job.
- Environment: The resources, information, and support one needs to perform well.
Motivation
- Determines the direction, intensity, and persistence of effort.
Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivation
- Intrinsic motivation: Pursuing an activity because it is inherently enjoyable and absent of apparent rewards.
- Extrinsic motivation: Performing an activity because it is related to desirable outcomes, such as financial rewards, status, or approval from others.
Why are some employees more motivated than others?
- Several theories attempt to summarize the key factors that foster high motivation:
- Need-based theories (Maslow, ERG, Two-Factor, Acquired Needs)
- Process-based theories (Equity, Expectancy theory, Reinforcement, Goal setting theory)
- Organizational structure/design (Job characteristics, Psychological empowerment)
Needs-Based Theories (Key Insights)
- Maslow's Hierarchy & the ERG theory:
- Assumes that human needs are arranged in a hierarchy of importance.
- Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs become motivators.
- ERG: A more contemporary approach that re-conceptualized Maslow's hierarchy with three needs:
- Existence (physiological and safety needs)
- Relatedness (belongingness and esteem needs)
- Growth (self-actualization needs)
Job Characteristics Theory
- Describes five core job dimensions leading to three critical psychological states:
-
Core Job Characteristics:
- Skill variety: The extent to which the job requires the use of different skills and talents.
- Task identity: The extent to which the job requires completion of a whole piece of work.
- Task significance: The extent to which the job has a substantial impact on others.
- Autonomy: The extent to which the job provides freedom, independence, and discretion.
- Feedback: The extent to which the job provides clear information about performance.
-
Psychological States:
- Meaningfulness: The extent to which an individual believes that their work is important and valuable.
- Responsibility: The extent to which an individual feels personally accountable for their work.
- Knowledge of results: The extent to which an individual is aware of their performance on the job.
-
Outcomes:
- Motivation
- Performance
- Satisfaction
- Absenteeism
- Turnover
- For motivation to occur, people need to feel at least three things:
-
My work counts (meaningful):
- Variety (utilizes different skills & talents)
- Identity (completing a whole, identifiable piece of work)
- Significance (substantial impact on lives of others)
-
What I do Matters (Responsibility for Outcomes):
- Autonomy (provides freedom, independence, and discretion)
-
I know how well/poorly I’m doing (Knowledge of Results):
- Feedback (clear information about your performance directly from the job)
-
My work counts (meaningful):
-
Core Job Characteristics:
- What does the theory say about motivation? Motivation is fostered when employees have jobs that are meaningful, provide responsibility, and offer the opportunity for feedback.
Psychological Empowerment Theory
- Reflects an energy rooted in the belief that work tasks contribute to some larger purpose.
- Empowerment may also be defined as the removal of conditions that make a person powerless.
- Meaningfulness: Captures the value of a work goal or purpose, relative to a person's own ideals and passions.
- Self-determination: Reflects a sense of choice in the initiation and continuation of work tasks.
- Competence: Captures a person's belief in his or her capability to perform work tasks successfully.
- Impact: Reflects the sense that a person's actions "make a difference" - that progress is being made toward fulfilling some important purpose.
- What did empowerment theory add to job characteristics theory? Empowerment theory expands upon the Job Characteristics Theory by highlighting the importance of meaningfulness in work, and the role that self-determination, competence, and impact can play in fostering motivation.
What is the difference between Maslow's theory and the ERG theory? The ERG theory, though based on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, acknowledges the three categories of existence, relatedness, and growth, and allows for individual differences within these categories and the fact that these needs are satisfied simultaneously.
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Description
Explore the fundamental research methods used in psychology, including controlled experiments, machine learning applications, and meta-analysis techniques. This quiz will also cover the importance of surveys and the distinctions between reliability and validity in research. Test your knowledge on these essential concepts.
