Research Methods in Psychology
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Questions and Answers

What is an example of an antecedent variable?

  • Annual income
  • Education level (correct)
  • Age
  • Employment status

    • Which method starts with an outcome and identifies the causes backward?

  • Qualitative research design
  • Causes of effects approach (correct)
  • Classical randomized experiment
  • Case study

    • What does an arrow diagram illustrate?

  • Statistical measures of central tendency
  • Relationships between categorical measures
  • Causal relationships among variables (correct)
  • Frequency distribution of data

    • Which of the following is a characteristic of closed-ended questions?

    <p>They limit responses to predefined options</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is central tendency a measure of?

    <p>The most common or middle value in a distribution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a classical randomized experiment, what is essential to establish?

    <p>Random assignment of variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is primarily depicted in a bar chart?

    <p>Frequency or percentage distribution of values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of measure is categorical?

    <p>Nominal or ordinal level measure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a control group in an experiment?

    <p>A group that does not receive the experimental treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a convenience sample?

    <p>Includes participants that are easiest for the researcher to access</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In statistics, what does correlation refer to?

    <p>A systematic relationship between two variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a cross-sectional design?

    <p>Variables are measured simultaneously to create groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a dependent variable?

    <p>The phenomenon that is measured as an outcome of another variable</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does descriptive statistic measure?

    <p>Key characteristics of a dataset</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor distinguishes a deviant case?

    <p>It diverges from the expected outcome despite similar conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a dichotomous variable?

    <p>A variable that has exactly two categories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does an interval-level measure provide that nominal and ordinal measures do not?

    <p>Meaningful intervals between categories or values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes an intervening variable?

    <p>It comes between the independent variable and dependent variable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of Large-N Studies?

    <p>They examine many instances of a phenomenon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about leading questions?

    <p>They encourage a particular response from the respondent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the level of measurement indicate?

    <p>The magnitude of statistical techniques applicable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which situation would a Least Likely Case be particularly informative?

    <p>When it confirms the hypothesis despite expected difficulties.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does linear regression primarily test regarding the relationship between two variables?

    <p>If the slope of the regression line is significantly different from zero.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of independent and dependent variables, what role does the intervening variable play?

    <p>It mediates how the independent variable affects the dependent variable.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes interview data?

    <p>It involves direct responses to questions posed by a researcher.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key statistic is often used in linear regression analysis?

    <p>Regression coefficient (often denoted as beta hat)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a proportionate sample?

    <p>It draws elements in proportion to their representation in the population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a low p-value indicate in hypothesis testing?

    <p>There is strong evidence against the null hypothesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is typical of qualitative research?

    <p>It provides in-depth observations without quantifying data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of using a quasi-experimental design?

    <p>It can still provide insights without random assignment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a quota sample differ from a proportionate sample?

    <p>It samples elements in proportion to their population representation but does so without random selection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does randomization ensure in experimental research?

    <p>It helps rule out alternative explanations for the findings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes ratio-level measurement?

    <p>It has mathematical properties that allow for meaningful comparison.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the range measure in a dataset?

    <p>The difference between the highest and lowest values.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an important aspect of reactivity in research?

    <p>It refers to the effect of measurement on the collected data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'Method of Difference' involve?

    <p>Finding a single common factor in different outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statistical measure is best for nominal variables?

    <p>Mode</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of case is most likely to confirm a hypothesis?

    <p>A case with predictable outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a natural experiment?

    <p>Random or 'as-if' random assignment of units</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a negative relationship, how do the values of the independent and dependent variables interact?

    <p>Increased IV values lead to decreased DV values</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a nominal-level measure indicate?

    <p>Different categories without a logical order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main characteristic of non-participant observation?

    <p>The researcher does not participate in the activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a non-probability sample?

    <p>Some units are more likely to be included than others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a normal distribution?

    <p>It has a symmetrical bell shape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of knowledge is concerned with value judgments about what should be?

    <p>Normative knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a null hypothesis?

    <p>A statement that suggests no relationship between two variables</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes an observational study?

    <p>The researcher simply observes differences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an open-ended question?

    <p>A question with no predefined response options</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are operational definitions used for?

    <p>To standardize measurements and data collection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of a disproportionate sample?

    <p>Elements sharing a characteristic are overrepresented or underrepresented.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines empirical research?

    <p>Research based on objective observation of phenomena.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of question is considered double-barreled?

    <p>What are your thoughts on our prices and customer support?</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does ecological fallacy highlight?

    <p>The risk of making conclusions about individuals based on group data.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily distinguishes face validity?

    <p>The perceived accuracy of a measure in capturing the intended concept.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In experimental research, what does the independent variable represent?

    <p>A phenomenon thought to influence another phenomenon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of the Effects of Causes approach?

    <p>Measuring the impact of a potential cause on an outcome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does internal validity assess in a research study?

    <p>The degree to which causal inference can be made.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term refers to the analysis of audio, visual, or written materials as sources of data?

    <p>Document analysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of elite interviewing?

    <p>Interviewing individuals with specialized knowledge about a phenomenon.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a field experiment?

    <p>Applied in a natural setting with everyday participation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'falsifiability' imply?

    <p>There should be a method to disprove a statement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research aims to refine or create theories based on observed phenomena?

    <p>Hypothesis Generating Case Study.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of research, what is meant by external validity?

    <p>The ability to apply findings beyond the research context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Alternative Hypothesis

    • Leads to spuriousness (other causes for IV and DV)
    • Qualitative research doesn't use hypothesis testing in the same way as quantitative research

    Antecedent Variable

    • Comes before the independent variable
    • Can help explain the relationship between the independent and dependent variables
    • Example: education level may explain the relationship between age and income

    Arrow Diagram

    • Pictorial representation of explanatory scheme.
    • Shows how variables connect with arrows.
    • Represents hypothesized causal relationship.

    Bar Chart

    • Graphical display of frequency or percentage distribution.
    • Height represents proportion/percentage of observations in each category.
    • Useful when showing the distribution across a few categories.

    Case Study

    • In-depth study of a single case or small number of cases.
    • Non-experimental design.
    • Researchers have limited control over events (often qualitative).
    • Hypothesis generating or hypothesis testing.
    • Idiographic (not generalizable, specific to understanding one event).

    Hypothesis Generating Case Study

    • Looking at cases to propose a hypothesis.

    Hypothesis Testing Case Study

    • Examining cases to prove a hypothesis.

    Idiographic Case Study

    • Focuses on one specific event rather than generalizability.

    Categorical Measure

    • Nominal or ordinal level.
    • Ordinal - has a meaningful order
    • Nominal- does not have an order (classifications)

    Causes of Effects Approach

    • Starts with outcome and works backward to identify causes.

    Central Tendency

    • Most frequent, middle or central value in a frequency distribution.
    • Mean, median, mode.

    Classical Randomized Experiment

    • Random assignment to control and experimental groups.
    • Pretest and posttest for both groups.
    • Treatment and control group differ only by stimulus.

    Closed-Ended Questions

    • Questions with predetermined answer options.
    • Limits respondent's answers to select from provided options.

    Cluster Sample

    • Probability sample used when a list of all elements doesn't exist.
    • Sampling frame initially consists of clusters of elements.

    Confidence Interval

    • Range of likely values for a population parameter.
    • Estimates a range with a high degree of confidence.
    • Wider range for higher level confidence.
    • Narrower range for lower confidence level.

    Confidence Level

    • Degree of belief or probability that the estimated range includes the true population parameters

    Constant

    • A concept or variable which values do not vary

    Construct Validity

    • Measures are valid when related to other measures of the same concept..
    • Systematically analyzes/measures data by either reading or automated computer programs.

    Content Analysis

    • Systematically analyzes records (text, images, audio, video) to transform data into quantifiable data.

    Content Validity

    • Captures all components of the concept when evaluating a measure.

    Control Group

    • Group not exposed to the experimental treatment.

    Convenience Sample

    • Selection of elements that are easily accessible.
    • Less reliable than other techniques.
    • A form of non-probability sample.

    Correlation

    • Association between two variables.
    • Values of one variable vary systematically with values in another.

    Cross Sectional Design

    • Measurements of all variables at one point in time/period.

    Cumulative Knowledge

    • Builds upon previous findings and research techniques

    Data Matrix (Data Set)

    • Stores numerical values for variables in rows and columns.
    • Rows are specific cases (individuals).
    • Columns are different variables.

    Dependent Variable

    • Affected by the independent variable.

    Descriptive Statistics

    • Numerical summaries of the properties/ characteristics of a group of numbers.

    Deviant Case

    • Does exhibit all the factors except the outcome

    Dichotomous Variable

    • Variable with only two categories.

    Direct Observation

    • Observing behaviors in person (either lab or field).

    Dispersion

    • Measures how spread out data are from the central tendency

    Disproportionate Sample

    • A stratified sample with over or under representation of a characteristic.

    Document Analysis

    • Using written (or other forms of) materials as data sources.

    Double-Barreled Questions

    • Asks two questions in one.

    Ecological Fallacy

    • Incorrect inference about individuals based on group-level observations.

    Effects of Causes Approach

    • Starts with cause and works towards impact.
    • Measures the extent of the effect of a potential cause.

    Electronic Databases

    • Collection of data from various sources (internet, digital archives).

    Elite Interviewing

    • Interviewing individuals with special knowledge or experience on topic of study

    Empirical Research

    • Verifiable research based on observation and experimentation.
    • Data is observable.
    • Propositions are supported by collected verifiable data.

    Episodic Records

    • Informal record keeping, not part of a formal system

    Ethnography

    • In-depth observation of a culture or social group

    Experiment

    • Research design manipulating a variable to observe effect on another.
    • Involves the control of experimental and control groups
    • Observation and analysis of results of manipulation.

    Experimental Effect

    • Changes in dependent variable caused by the independent variable
    • Effect is often measured numerically.

    Explanatory Knowledge

    • Understandings of how and why particular phenomena occur.

    External Validity

    • Ability to generalize research findings to other contexts or groups.

    Face Validity

    • Measure appears to capture the construct accurately based on appearance.

    Falsifiability

    • Statement capable of being disproved by evidence.
    • Statements which cannot be tested are not falsifiable.

    Field Experiment

    • Conducted in a natural setting.
    • Participants engaging in activities as part of their daily lives.

    Frequency Distribution

    • Lists count of observations (or percentage) in a set of categories.

    General Knowledge

    • Knowledge applicable to many cases, rather than one or a few

    Histogram

    • Bar graph showing the frequency distribution of data in intervals.
    • Height and area proportional to frequency distributions

    Hypothesis

    • Testable statement about a relationship (often between independent/dependent variables).

    Hypothesis Generating Case Study

    • Case study to develop general propositions that can be tested later.

    Idiographic Case Study

    • Detailed description or explanation of a unique phenomenon.

    Independent Variable

    • The variable the researcher is manipulating or testing.

    Indirect Observation

    • Observing traces of behavior, rather than actual behavior.
    • Procedures ensuring voluntary participation in research by research subjects.

    Institutional Review Board (IRB)

    • Panel reviewing ethics of research involving humans.

    Internal Validity

    • Degree to which manipulation of the independent variable causes observed changes in the dependent variable.

    Interval-Level Measure

    • Numerical values with intervals of equal size.
    • Example: temperature, test scores.

    Intervening Variable

    • A variable between independent and dependent variable's effects

    Interview Data

    • Collected through questions, interviews, or conversations.
    • Can be structured or unstructured.

    Large-N Studies

    • Examine many cases.
    • Collect a lot of data points.
    • Often use quantitative measurements.

    Leading Question

    • Leads respondents toward certain answers.

    Least Likely Case (Hard Case)

    • Case where theory least likely to apply (most challenging to test).

    Level of Measurement

    • Category or type that describes a numerical variable.

    Linear Regression

    • Statistical approach to model linear relationship between variables.
    • Used to analyze relationships between dependent/independent variables

    Literature Review

    • Critical examination of existing literature relating to a topic.
    • Summarises previous work relevant to current research
    • Contexts current research.

    Mean

    • Average of a set of numerical values

    Measurement Bias

    • Systematic error in measurement, either over or under estimating values

    Median

    • Middle value in a sorted set of numerical values.

    Method of Agreement

    • Researchers identify factors common to all cases that share an outcome.

    Method of Difference

    • Researchers compare cases with similar characteristics but different outcomes, looking for the distinguishing factor.

    Mode

    • Most frequent value in a set of data.

    Most Likely Case (Easy Case)

    • Theory confirms outcome using easy-to-study cases

    Natural Experiment

    • Observing naturally occurring events.
    • Similar to a quasi-experimental design.

    Negative Relationship

    • Relationship in which high values of one variable are associated with low values of another.

    Nominal-Level Measure

    • Variables classified into categories with no inherent order..

    Non-Participant Observation

    • Researchers observe behaviors from a distance (not participating).

    Non-Probability Sample

    • Sample for which each unit (person, item) has varying or unknown probability of selection

    Normative Knowledge/Questions

    • Evaluative and concerned with ideals, rather than describing what is.

    Normal Distribution

    • Bell-shaped curve describing the frequency of data.
    • Mean, median, and mode are all the same.

    Null Hypothesis

    • Statement that there is no relationship between variables for a target population

    Observational Study

    • Researcher observes and records data without manipulating any variables.
    • No direct control over or manipulation of variables.
    • Focuses on observing naturally occurring variables

    Open-Ended Questions

    • Questions allowing respondents to answer freely about a topic using their own words

    Operational Definitions

    • Precise, measurable statements that describe how variables are to be measured and recorded in a study..

    Operationalization

    • Deciding which methods to use to measure variables

    Outlier

    • Value significantly different from other data points in a dataset.

    Participant Observation

    • Researchers actively participate in the observation rather than just watching (participating in group activity).
    • Often qualitative.

    Parsimony

    • Preference for simpler explanations of phenomena.

    Peer Review

    • Process whereby other experts evaluate research submissions in a field for quality analysis before publication.

    Population

    • Entire set of units or cases that researchers are interested in.

    Population Parameter

    • A measurable characteristic of a population.
    • Mean, proportion are examples.

    Positive Relationship

    • Relationship where a value in one variable increases with a value in another

    Precision

    • How informative/detailed a measurement is
    • Extent of data values in measurement, how granular or detailed data.

    Pretest

    • Measurement of variables before any manipulation in a study
    • Measurement made before manipulation or intervention, prior to the main study

    Primary Data

    • Directly observed data collection

    Probability Sample

    • Each case in the target population has a known (typically equal) chance of selection.
    • All cases are not excluded.

    Process Tracking

    • Researchers trace a causal path from initial cause(s) to final outcome.
    • Often detailed and in depth

    Proportionate Sample

    • Cases within the sample reflect their proportions in the population.

    Quota Sample

    • Reflecting the population's characteristics but selected using convenience.
    • Accounts for subgroups in the population.

    Randomization

    • Assigning subjects to conditions/groups by chance

    Ratio-Level Measure

    • Highest level of measurement, with a meaningful zero point and equal values.

    Reactivity

    • Change in behavior when participants know they're being observed.

    Reliability

    • Consistency of results when measurements are repeated.
    • Results should not differ too much under any one condition or from study to study.

    Research Hypothesis

    • Statement of the expected relationship between variables in a study.

    Research Design

    • Plan for how a study will be performed.
    • Details of sampling methodology, methods of measurement, analysis procedures

    Response Rate

    • Proportion of selected (all/potential) participants who actually participate in the study

    Running Record

    • Records maintained over a period of time, showing changes in variables over time.

    Sample

    • Subset of the population
    • Selection of elements of interest.
    • Represents overall population characteristics.
    • Selection criteria are important

    Sample Bias

    • Elements of the population are systematically excluded or over-represented in the sample/results

    Sampling Distribution

    • Distribution of a particular sample statistic.
    • Used for calculating confidence intervals.

    Sampling Error

    • Difference between a sample statistic and the population parameter.
    • Random variation.

    Sampling Frame

    • List of all cases that comprise the population; used in sample selection; needed for certain calculations.

    Skewed Distribution

    • Data points skewed either to the right or left, with an upward sloping tail in one direction or a downward sloping tail in the other.

    Small-N Studies

    • Focus on a few cases (qualitative).
    • Detailed description and detailed analysis

    Spurious Relationship

    • Correlation between two variables is not because of a causal relationship but due to a third variable.

    Standard Deviation

    • Measures data's spread around the mean.

    Stratified Sample

    • Divided into subgroups (strata) then random sample from subgroups.
    • Proportionate/ disproportionate.

    Statistical Inference

    • Using sample data to make conclusions about a population.

    Statistical Significance

    • Probability that obtained data is representative of the population.

    Trend Analysis

    • Examining how a variable changes over time.
    • Plots and graphs.

    Two-Sided Question

    • Question inviting two alternative responses.

    Type 1 Error

    • Rejecting a true null hypothesis.

    Type 2 Error

    • Failing to reject a false null hypothesis

    Unit of Analysis

    • What (or whom) data of a study is collected on (e.g., people, groups, institutions)

    Validity

    • Accuracy of a measurement; does it measure what it is intended to measure?
    • Face, content, construct.

    Verification

    • Confirmation or support of a statement using evidence or data.

    Z-Score

    • Tells us how many standard deviations a value is from the mean of a distribution.

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    Description

    Explore key concepts in research methods for psychology through this quiz. Topics include alternative hypotheses, antecedent variables, visual representation techniques like arrow diagrams and bar charts, and case studies. Test your knowledge on qualitative and quantitative research methodologies.

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