Research Methods and Processes Overview
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Questions and Answers

What is a key feature of primary research?

  • It relies on existing studies and literature.
  • It involves firsthand observation and study by the researcher. (correct)
  • It focuses only on theoretical frameworks.
  • It is usually conducted by multiple researchers.

Which of the following is NOT a disadvantage of structured interviews?

  • Formal in nature.
  • Simple to administer. (correct)
  • Limited flexibility.
  • Response bias.

What is the focus of critical discourse analysis?

  • Analyzing the structure of conversation in isolation.
  • Studying language without considering social context.
  • Examining only the aesthetic aspects of language.
  • Understanding how language reproduces social and political power. (correct)

Which of the following ethical principles requires researchers to keep participant information confidential?

<p>Confidentiality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes unstructured interviews?

<p>They offer flexibility and participant-driven information collection. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue does social desirability bias typically create in interviews?

<p>Participants provide answers that are less truthful. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements best describes conversation analysis?

<p>It studies the unspoken rules that govern social interactions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does semi-structured interviewing differ from fully structured interviews?

<p>It combines a prepared list of questions with flexibility. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant ethical consideration in conducting research?

<p>Ensuring voluntary participation and informed consent. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary concern of discourse analysis?

<p>To investigate how language influences social realities. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of conducting an experiment?

<p>To demonstrate whether something is true (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling method ensures that every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected?

<p>Simple random sampling (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Increasing the sample size in research primarily affects which aspect?

<p>It decreases the margin of error. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of convenience sampling?

<p>It selects subjects based on their accessibility. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In stratified random sampling, what is done before selecting the sample?

<p>Identifying and arranging population into strata (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between independent and dependent variables?

<p>Independent variables are controlled and manipulated, while dependent variables are measured. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the process of making conclusions about a population based on sample data?

<p>Statistical inference (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a large sample size not guarantee?

<p>Elimination of biases in selection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of variable is best described as having categories that can be ranked but with unknown distances between them?

<p>Ordinal variables (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling method involves making initial contact with a small group and then using referrals?

<p>Snowball sampling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a spurious relationship imply?

<p>There are two variables that correlate with each other due to a third variable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the margin of error in the context of sampling?

<p>The difference between the estimated and true population parameter (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of descriptive statistics?

<p>To summarize and describe features of data in a study. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following represents a correct measure of central tendency?

<p>Mean can be significantly influenced by extreme values. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes purposive sampling?

<p>Selection based on specific characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What measure describes the variation of scores around the measure of central tendency?

<p>Dispersion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which assertion about sample bias is true?

<p>Sample bias can arise from inadequate sampling frames and non-random samples. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a representative sample?

<p>A sample that accurately reflects the population's characteristics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the range in a dataset?

<p>The difference between the maximum and minimum values. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding validity in research?

<p>Validity determines if concepts were properly operationalized. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of a moderator in guided conversations?

<p>To facilitate open discussion and gather qualitative data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main disadvantages of using focus groups?

<p>Data can be difficult to analyze effectively (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does ethnography primarily involve?

<p>Immersing in a community to observe and interact (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect does ethnomethodology focus on in communication?

<p>The unconscious belief systems behind actions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of content analysis?

<p>Systematic examination of material for patterns (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a criterion for assessing documents in social research?

<p>Longitudinal significance (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reliability measure in a study?

<p>The consistency of results over trials (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of survey design tracks changes over time in the same population?

<p>Longitudinal study (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of claims does policy and case analysis aim to understand?

<p>Social groups and processes in contemporary settings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Access to Information Act in Canada?

<p>To allow citizens to access federal government records (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A longitudinal survey primarily focuses on what?

<p>Tracking changes in the same individuals over time (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does validity refer to in a research context?

<p>How well a study measures its intended concepts (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In research methodology, what is a disadvantage of surveys?

<p>They can suffer from low response rates (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Operationalization

The process of translating abstract concepts into measurable variables for research.

Variables

Characteristics or qualities that vary among individuals or objects in a study. They can be measured, manipulated, or controlled.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher. The presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured or observed in a study. The presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship.

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Nominal Variables

Categories with no inherent order or ranking. Examples: gender, hair color, political affiliation.

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Ordinal Variables

Categories that can be ranked, but the distances between them are not equal or known. Examples: educational level, satisfaction levels, income brackets.

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Interval/Ratio Variables

Variables where units exist and the distance between categories is consistent and measurable. Examples: temperature, age, income.

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Correlation

A relationship between two or more variables where they vary together, but one doesn't necessarily cause the other.

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Causation

A cause-and-effect relationship where one variable directly influences another.

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Spurious Relationship

An apparent relationship between two variables that is actually caused by a third, unobserved variable.

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Sampling Error

The difference between the characteristics of a sample and the population from which it's drawn.

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Simple Random Sampling (SRS)

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

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Stratified Random Sampling (STRS)

The population is divided into groups (strata) based on specific characteristics, and then a random sample is taken from each group.

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Cluster Random Sampling (CRS)

The population is divided into clusters, and then a random sample of clusters is selected.

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Systematic Sampling (SS)

Every nth member of the population is selected, starting with a randomly chosen first member.

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Convenience Sampling

Selecting participants who are easily accessible.

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Purposive Sampling

Selecting participants based on specific characteristics.

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Sampling Bias

A systematic error in the sampling process that leads to an unrepresentative sample.

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Margin of Error

A range within which the true population value is likely to fall.

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Generalizability

The extent to which the findings of a study can be applied to other populations or settings.

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Scientific Method

A logical research approach with explicit procedures and open to inspection, requiring a consensus on its assumptions and methods.

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Primary Research

Research conducted directly by the researcher involving firsthand observation and data collection.

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Secondary Research

Research relying on data and findings collected by others to analyze a topic or construct an argument.

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Conversation Analysis

Examines the unwritten rules that govern social interactions, focusing on the nuances of talk.

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Discourse Analysis

Explores how language, including visual communication, constructs social reality and shapes our understanding.

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Critical Discourse Analysis

Examines the ways social and political power are reproduced through language and texts.

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Informed Consent

Ensuring participants fully understand the procedures, risks, and benefits of the research before participating.

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Confidentiality

Protecting the privacy of research participants by ensuring their information is not shared with unauthorized individuals.

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Anonymity

Protecting participants' identities by ensuring they remain unknown even to the researchers.

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Structured Interview

A formal interview where the researcher follows a pre-defined set of questions, aiming to maintain consistency and reduce bias.

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Semi-structured Interview

An interview with a pre-determined list of questions but allowing for flexibility and exploration of unexpected information.

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Unstructured Interview

A free-flowing interview driven by the participant's responses and guided by the researcher's overall objective.

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Focus Groups

Small groups of up to 7 individuals discussing conscious and unconscious psychological and social aspects of a topic.

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Moderator

The person who guides a focus group discussion, encouraging open conversation and collecting information.

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Dynamic Interaction

Active communication and reactions within a focus group, creating a 'synergistic group effect' where ideas build upon each other.

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Advantages of Focus Groups

Focus groups provide a wealth of qualitative data, allow for in-depth exploration of topics, and are relatively fast and cost-effective.

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Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Focus groups can be unnatural, limited to verbal responses, and pose challenges with data analysis and group bias.

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Historical Research

Investigates how specific individuals acted in the past, documenting the development of realities or practices.

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Policy and Case Analysis

Studies individuals, social groups, or processes in the present, making descriptive, interpretive, explanatory, and evaluative claims.

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Ethnography

A research method where the researcher lives within a group for an extended period, observing behaviors, listening to conversations, and asking questions.

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Ethnomethodology

Studies the unconscious beliefs and codes behind everyday actions and communication, often by analyzing media content.

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Content Analysis

Systematic examination of various materials like documents, photos, or videos to identify patterns, themes, and meanings.

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Access to Information Act

Canadian law giving citizens the right to access records held by federal government institutions.

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Privacy Act

Canadian law protecting personal information held by the government from unauthorized use and disclosure.

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Authenticity of Documents

Assessing whether a document is genuine and from the claimed source, using internal and external evidence.

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Reliability

The consistency of a study's results when repeated, ensuring the same outcome under similar conditions.

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Validity

Measuring whether a study accurately reflects the concepts it intends to assess, ensuring it measures what it claims to measure.

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Study Notes

Research Methods and Processes

  • Epistemology: The study of knowledge and justified belief. Forms a foundation for research.
  • Literature Review: Examining existing research to understand the current knowledge base.
  • Theorization: Developing or utilizing theories to guide the research.
  • Hypothesis/Research Questions: Formulating testable statements or questions to be addressed.
  • Research Design: Outlining the overall approach for conducting the research.
  • Ethical Considerations: Establishing guidelines to ensure the well-being of participants and integrity of the research project.
  • Data Collection: Gathering relevant information using appropriate methods.
  • Data Analysis: Processing and interpreting the collected data to examine trends and patterns.
  • Findings and Theorization: Presenting the results and drawing conclusions that may influence the existing theories.

Research Methods

  • Scientific Method: A logically reasoned approach to research that follows an explicit procedure and is open to scrutiny. A consensus on methods and assumptions is crucial.
  • Popper's Hypothetico-Deductive Scheme: A method for developing and testing hypotheses.
  • Primary Research: Original data collection and analysis by the researcher.
  • Secondary Research: Analysis of data previously collected by others.
  • Conversation Analysis: Study of the rules dictating social interaction in spoken language (ethnomethodology).
  • Discourse Analysis: Examining the language and its role in constructing social reality (focuses on talk and also images).
  • Critical Discourse Analysis: Viewing language as a social practice and examining how language reproduces social and political power. Assumes a link between power and language.
  • Producing Ethical Research: Key elements for morally sound research.
    • Voluntary Participation: Subjects choose to participate freely, without coercion.
    • Informed Consent: Participants are fully aware of research procedures and potential risks.
    • Risk of Harm: No research should place participants in harm's way.
    • Confidentiality: Protecting participant information from unauthorized access.
    • Anonymity: Participants remain completely anonymous even to the researcher.
    • Privacy: Participants retain control over their personal information and consent or dissent when given that choice.

Data Collection Methods

  • Interviews:
    • Structured Interviews: Pre-determined questions, fixed format, to reduce bias and improve reliability and validity. Can be simple, cost-effective and efficient.
    • Semi-Structured Interviews: Pre-determined questions, but with room for flexibility for discussion and a less formal tone. Best of both worlds, combining reliability and validity with rich details.
    • Unstructured Interviews: Flexible, open-ended questions. Less control over responses, yielding validity but limited generalizability.
  • Focus Groups: Small groups discussing specific topics to generate data, and gain nuanced experiences about the topic.
    • Moderator: Guides the discussion and draws out information from participants.

Other Research Methods

  • Historical/Policy/Case Study Analysis: Analysis of past events, current policies, or specific cases to understand realities, practices, or behaviour.
  • Ethnography: Immersive observation of a group over an extended period, including observation, conversations, and interviews, to gain an understanding of their culture and behavior. Focused observation of a community.
  • Content Analysis: Careful examination of documents, photos or audio/video to identify patterns, biases, themes, or meanings.
  • Access to Information and Privacy in Canada: Federal legislation governing access to government records and protection of personal information, in Canada.
  • Criteria for Assessing Documents in Social Research: Evaluating documents by assessing authenticity, credibility, sincerity, and meaning (literal and interpretive).
  • Problems with Validating Readings: Consideration of representativeness, survival concerns, availability, and reliability/validity of documents.
  • Sampling:
    • Surveys (Quantitative): Large, diverse samples with closed-ended questions. (Cross-sectional = one point in time, Longitudinal = over time, Trend = same population across time, Panel = same group across time). Surveys describe the population; measure and test theories.
    • Experiments (Quantitative): Design to show cause and effect, with experimental (treatment) and control groups, random assignment, and pre and post-tests.

Variables and Statistical Analysis

  • Operationalization: Defining abstract concepts in measurable terms.
  • Variables: Qualities that vary among the subjects of study (independent variables = manipulated or controlled; dependent variables = measured or recorded. Nominal, ordinal, interval/ratio).
  • Correlation vs. Causation: Relationship between variables; recognizing correlation is not necessarily causation.
  • Descriptive Statistics: Summarizing data (mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation).
  • Inferential Statistics: Drawing conclusions about a population based on a sample.
  • Sampling types: various methods for choosing a subset of the population for investigation to draw conclusions for the entire population, or specific groups. Probability Sampling (simple random sampling, stratified, cluster, systematic) and non probability sampling (convenience, purposive, snowball, quota).
  • Sample Size: Consideration of sample size for precision.
  • (Confidence interval, margin of error)

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Description

This quiz covers essential concepts in research methods and processes. Topics include epistemology, literature reviews, and data analysis techniques that are crucial for conducting effective research. Test your understanding of these fundamental components to enhance your research skills.

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