Research Instruments Overview

Research Instrument

• A research instrument is the tools, methods, or procedures for collecting data during research. (Babbie, 2016; Creswell, 2014; Johnson & Christensen, 2014; Neuman, 2013)

Objectives

• Identify different types of research instruments.
• Determine which type of instrument best suits the research.
• Construct the research instrument.

Ways in Developing Research Instrument

• Adopted: Pre-existing instrument
• Adapted: Modified instrument
• Researcher-made: Instrument made by the researcher

Kinds of Research Instrument

Questionnaire

• A questionnaire involves a series of questions about a research topic to gather data from participants.
• The questions should align with the research questions. (Barrot, 2018, p138).

Structure of Questionnaire

• Structured: Closed-ended questions (QN)
• Unstructured: Open-ended questions (QL)
• Semi-structured: Combination of QN and QL

Questionnaire Advantages

• Data collection is fast from many participants.
• Participants are more open due to anonymity.

Questionnaire Disadvantages

• Questions can be interpreted differently by participants.
• Some participants may not complete all responses.
• Some questionnaires may not be returned on time.
• Some questionnaires may be lost.
• Answers may lack depth.

Questionnaire Guidelines

• Divide into parts:
  • Personal information (names are optional).
  • Main section.
  • Open-ended questions (for mixed-methods research).
• Craft questions and choices that align with research questions/objectives.
• Provide specific directions for respondents.
• Use routing techniques to skip questions.
• Start with general questions followed by specific ones.
• Use simple terms in the questionnaire.
• Predetermined responses should match the question type.
  • Beliefs: strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree.
  • Behaviors: very great extent, great extent, moderate extent, small extent, none at all.
  • Frequency: always, frequently, sometimes, seldom, never.
  • Quality: excellent, very good, good, poor.
• Avoid negative or leading/biased questions.
• Avoid double-barreled or sensitive questions.
• Do not split the questions/choices across pages.
• If possible, schedule appointments before distributing questionnaires.
• Attach a cover letter, especially for agency-connected respondents.
• Make a follow-up on participants who did not return the questionnaire.
• Tally and encode data immediately and archive digitally.

Test

• Used to evaluate various skills and behaviors and describe characteristics.
• Typically used in quantitative research.

Types of Test

• Standardized: Scored uniformly; wide range of groups.
• Non-standardized: Not scored uniformly; specific set of people.

Types of Test Questions:

• Recall: Participants retrieve information from memory. Subtypes include:
  • Cloze test: provide words or phrases missing from a text.
  • Identification: provide answers using pure recall.
  • Enumeration: List down answers (chronological or not).
• Recognition: Participants select from given choices. Subtypes include:
  • Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer from 3-5 options.
  • Matching: Match items in one column with items in another.
  • Dichotomous: Choose between two options (True/False). Open-ended: Allow respondents freedom in expressing thoughts.
  • Example subtypes: Essay tests, other performance-based tests.

Types of Test Questions: Open-Ended

• Non-performance based: Provide lengthy answers (orally or in writing).
• Performance-based: Perform tasks (presentation or written work). - Examples:
  • explain a process,
  • role play.

Interview

• Method for collecting data about behaviors, opinions, values, emotions, and demographics.
• Can use words (qualitative) or numbers (quantitative).

Interview Differences (QL & QN)

Observation

• Researcher observes actual events/phenomena. Highly flexible method.
• Often used in qualitative research; can be used in quantitative research if observable characteristics are quantifiable.
• Types:
  • Controlled Observation: Done under standard procedure for greater reliability; used in experimental research. Non-participant role; easier analysis.
  • Natural Observation: Done in a non-controlled setting.
  • Participation Observation: Observer becomes a member of the group. Observer can be covert (unknown to participants) or overt (known to participants).

Roles for Observer in Participation Observation

• Complete Observer: Observer records spontaneous natural behavior. No external factors affect the observed behavior. Unrecognized by the observed, reduced Hawthorne Effect.
• Observer as Participant: Researcher records natural behavior but is known and recognized by participants; limited interaction.
• Participant as Observer: Observer is a researcher not in the group or community but actively engaged.
• Complete Participant: Researcher acts as an “undercover” member of the observed group; fully engaged with participants unaware of observation.

Observation Guidelines

• Before observation:*
• Clarify research objectives.
• Use observation checklists.
• Determine observation time and technique.
• Record relevant information.
• Prepare consent forms (human observation).
• During observation:*
• Record date, time, and place of observation.
• Limit the number of observers.
• Inform participants (when applicable) about the purpose of observations.
• Avoid disruptions.
• Guarantee participant anonymity.
• Use various record schemes (notes, videos, audios, photos).
• After observation:*
• Code or arrange data according to variables.
• Tabulate data (use numerical values in quantitative research).
• Review all data for gaps/missing parts before proceeding.

Research Time!

• Start constructing research instrument.
• Make sure the instrument is validated before data collection.
• Provide a letter of validation request to three validators during validation.