Renal Dialysis and Kidney Transplant Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What triggers the secretion of glucagon when blood glucose concentration is low?

Alpha cells detecting low glucose levels (correct)

Insulin binding to receptor cells

Beta cells detecting low glucose levels

Hepatocytes sensing glucose levels

What process occurs when glucagon stimulates hepatocytes?

Glycogenesis

Lipogenesis

Glycogenolysis (correct)

Gluconeogenesis

How does the potential difference change in beta cells when glucose concentration increases?

It becomes positive, causing depolarization (correct)

It becomes negative, leading to hyperpolarization

It remains unchanged at -70mV

It fluctuates rapidly with no net effect

Which of the following best describes Type I diabetes?

Beta cells are destroyed by the immune system Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about insulin secretion is true?

Closing of potassium channels allows calcium ions to enter the cell Signup and view all the answers

What is a common symptom associated with diabetes?

Ketoacidosis Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT a risk associated with Type II diabetes?

Excessive physical activity Signup and view all the answers

How are patients with diabetes sometimes treated?

Genetically engineered bacteria producing insulin Signup and view all the answers

What role does dialysis fluid play in renal dialysis?

It helps to remove waste products and excess ions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about haemodialysis is true?

It requires a blood thinning agent to prevent clotting. Signup and view all the answers

What is a major disadvantage of dialysis treatment?

It causes patients to feel unwell between sessions. Signup and view all the answers

Why is a kidney transplant considered a better long-term solution compared to dialysis?

It permanently removes the need for artificial filtration. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of immunosuppressants after a kidney transplant?

To prevent rejection of the transplanted kidney. Signup and view all the answers

What substance is tested for in pregnancy tests using urine samples?

Human chorionic gonadotropin. Signup and view all the answers

How are anabolic steroids typically detected in urine samples?

Via gas chromatography measuring passage time. Signup and view all the answers

What physiological role do neurones primarily serve?

Communication within the nervous system. Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily used to promote root growth?

Auxins Signup and view all the answers

What effect do gibberellins have when combined with cytokinins?

Promote elongation of apples Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is responsible for voluntary control of skeletal muscles?

Somatic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is known for its role in promoting fruit ripening?

Ethene Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?

Increase heart rate Signup and view all the answers

The cerebrum is responsible for which of the following functions?

Controlling vision and learning Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the equilibrium between the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems is disturbed?

A stress response is generated Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is used in the brewing of beer for malt production?

Gibberellins Signup and view all the answers

What function does the accelerator nerve serve in the cardiovascular system?

It increases the heart rate. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor would typically lead to a decrease in heart rate?

High pH levels. Signup and view all the answers

What type of receptors are responsible for monitoring changes in blood pressure?

Baroreceptors Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes antagonistic muscle pairs?

Muscles that pull in opposite directions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of tendons in the muscular system?

They connect muscles to bones. Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily responsible for stimulating the fight or flight response?

Adrenaline Signup and view all the answers

What structure is formed by the attachment of two bones?

Joint Signup and view all the answers

Which pair of muscles is considered a flexor and extensor antagonistic pair?

Biceps and triceps Signup and view all the answers

What role do T-tubules play in muscle contraction?

They facilitate the transmission of electrical impulses. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when an action potential reaches the sarcolemma?

Sodium channels open, causing depolarization. Signup and view all the answers

Which protein binds to calcium ions during muscle contraction?

Troponin Signup and view all the answers

What molecule is primarily responsible for providing ATP during prolonged muscle activity?

Oxidative phosphorylation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ATP in muscle contraction?

To break cross bridges between myosin and actin. Signup and view all the answers

Why do muscle fibers appear striated?

Because of the arrangement of myofibrils into sarcomeres. Signup and view all the answers

During muscle contraction, what happens to the sarcomeres?

They shorten. Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway provides ATP for short bursts of high-intensity muscle activity?

Anaerobic respiration Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Renal Dialysis

Filters blood with the help of a machine
Temporary solution for kidney failure patients awaiting transplants
Performed several times a week
Two Types:
Haemodialysis
- Removes blood from the body and pumps it through a machine
- Uses dialysis fluid in countercurrent flow to the blood
- Requires an artificial membrane to separate fluids
- Molecules move by diffusion gradients
- Requires a blood thinning agent to prevent clotting
Peritoneal Dialysis
- Dialysis fluid is placed in the body cavity
- Exchange occurs across the peritoneal membrane
- The dialysis fluid must be drained and replaced

Kidney Transplant

Required to replace the damaged kidney
Long term solution for kidney failure
Patients require matching blood and tissue types from donors to prevent rejection
Immunosuppressants are required to prevent rejection
Often family members donate because only one kidney is essential for survival

Medical Diagnosis using Urine Samples

Pregnancy testing using monoclonal antibodies to detect human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Testing for the presence of Anabolic Steroids
- Anabolic steroids are used to build muscle mass
- Presence can be detected using gas chromatography
- Steroid presence is detected by measuring the time it takes for the urine sample to pass through the column compared to the time it takes for a steroid to pass through.

Neuronal Communication

Neurons coordinate communication within the nervous system
Insulin is a hormone secreted by beta cells of the pancreas
Insulin lowers blood glucose concentration by stimulating the uptake of glucose by cells
Insulin increases the permeability of cells to glucose, increasing glucose uptake
Glucose is converted into glycogen or fats (stored in muscle) and used for respiration

Control of Insulin Secretion

Beta cells contain potassium and calcium ion channels
Potential difference across the membrane is -70mV
As glucose concentration increases, glucose diffuses into beta cells through specific channel proteins
ATP produced from glucose respiration causes ATP-gated potassium ion channels to close
Potassium ions no longer diffuse out, making the potential inside the cell more positive causing depolarization
Depolarization opens calcium ion channels, allowing Ca2+ into the cell
Ca2+ triggers insulin-containing vesicles to fuse with the plasma membrane by exocytosis

Diabetes Mellitus

The body cannot control blood glucose levels
Two types:
Type I Diabetes
- Autoimmune disease
- Beta cells are destroyed, resulting in insufficient insulin production
- Managed by monitoring blood glucose concentration and insulin injections
Type II Diabetes
- Cells become less responsive to insulin as the affected person ages
- Treated with insulin supplements, diet control, and monitoring
- Risk factors include obesity, high sugar diets, ethnicity, and sedentary lifestyle
- Symptoms include tiredness, thirst, and ketoacidosis
Insulin for treatment can be produced by genetically engineered bacteria

Commercial Uses of Plant Hormones

Auxins
- Used in rooting powder, for growth of seedless fruit
- Used in herbicides, for fruit drop
Gibberellins
- Delay senescence in citrus fruits
- Elongate apples and grape stalks
- Used in brewing of beer to produce malt
- Increase sugar cane yield
- Speed up seed formation
- Prevent lodging
Cytokinins
- Prevent yellowing of lettuce leaves
- Promote shoot growth
Ethene
- Speeds up ripening
- Promotes lateral growth
- Promotes fruit drop

Organisation of the Mammalian Nervous System

Consists of:
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
- Made up of the brain and spinal cord
- Contains gray and white matter
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
- Made up of sensory and motor neurons
- Carry nerve impulses towards and away from the CNS
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
- Operates without conscious thought
- Made up of sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons
- Controls homeostatic mechanisms and response to stress
The Somatic Nervous System
- Involved in voluntary control of skeletal muscles
The Sympathetic and Parasympathetic systems are antagonistic, with opposing effects:
- Parasympathetic system: decreases heart rate, constricts pupils
- Sympathetic system: increases heart rate, dilates pupils
If equilibrium is disrupted, the effector generates a response

Human Brain

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain
Made of two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum
Controls vision, thinking, learning emotions, and voluntary body control (advanced mental activity)

Regulation of Heart Rate

The accelerator nerve (sympathetic nervous system) increases heart rate by delivering a higher frequency of impulses to the sinoatrial node (SAN)
The vagus nerve (parasympathetic nervous system) slows down heart rate by delivering a lower frequency of impulses to the SAN
Factors that increase heart rate:
- Low pH caused by high carbon dioxide, detected by chemoreceptors in carotid arteries, aorta, and the brain, which send impulses to the medulla oblongata where the cardiovascular centre is located
- Stretch receptors respond to muscle movement, for example during exercise
- Decrease in blood pressure, monitored by baroreceptors in the sinus
- Adrenaline is a hormone released to stimulate the 'fight or flight' response
Heart rate is decreased when the opposite conditions occur (increase in pH due to decreased carbon dioxide and increased blood pressure)

Mammalian Muscle and Contraction

Key Words:
- Tendons: Non-elastic tissues that connect muscles to bones
- Ligaments: Elastic tissues that join bones together and determine movement at a joint
- Joints: Areas where two bones connect to allow movement. Made of fibrous connective tissue and cartilage.
- Skeletal Muscles: Muscles attached to bones, arranged in antagonistic pairs
- Antagonistic Pairs: Pairs of muscles that pull in opposite directions. (One muscle contracts, the other relaxes)
  - Flexors and extensors are an antagonistic pair (e.g., triceps and biceps)

Muscles

Skeletal muscle is made up of muscle fibers enclosed within a plasma membrane (Sarcolemma)
Sarcolemma folds inwards (T-tubules) to allow electrical impulses to travel throughout the sarcoplasm
Sarcoplasm contains the sarcoplasmic reticulum, which contains Ca2+ needed for contraction
Each muscle fiber contains myofibrils, composed of two proteins:
- Myosin (thick filament)
- Actin (thin filament)
Myofibrils are organized into units called sarcomeres
Sarcomeres shorten as the actin myofilaments are pulled over the myosin filaments when muscles contract
Skeletal muscles are described as striated because of the striped appearance of sarcomeres (dark bands = A bands , light bands = I bands)
When an action potential arrives at the sarcolemma, sodium ion channels open, causing depolarization
- This triggers the release of Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing tropomyosin to move away from the myosin binding sites on the actin molecules
- This allows myosin-actin cross-bridges to form
When myosin heads change angle, they pull the actin molecules towards the center of the sarcomere
ATP is needed to break the cross-bridges and hydrolysis of this ATP provides the energy for myosin to return to its original conformation.
Myosin can now bind to a site further along the actin, and the cycle repeats

Sources of ATP for Muscle Contraction:

Most ATP is provided by oxidative phosphorylation (aerobic respiration)
Anaerobic respiration provides ATP for short periods of high-intensity activity
Creatine Phosphate acts as a reserve supply of phosphate to generate ATP

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Description

Test your knowledge on renal dialysis and kidney transplant processes. This quiz covers the types of dialysis, procedures involved, and essential information about kidney transplants. Understand the mechanisms, requirements, and implications of these crucial treatments for kidney failure.