Renaissance and Reformation Study Guide

Akbar was a Mughal emperor who reformed the Indian state by changing administration and taxation, advocating for religious tolerance, and including non-Muslims in governance. He abolished the jizya tax, granted non-Muslims equal rights, and commissioned a building for theological discussions.

Despite his efforts to promote tolerance, Akbar was also known for using violence to maintain order. He slaughtered many citizens, utilized the skulls of Indian princes to instill fear, and experimented on infants, demonstrating a complex and often brutal side of his rule.

Aurangzeb was a Mughal emperor known for his strict adherence to Islamic law and his policies that discriminated against non-Muslims, particularly Hindus. He reversed Akbar's policies and sought to create a purely Islamic state, leading to increased tensions and contributing to the empire's decline.

Aurangzeb's reign faced challenges, including costly rebellions in the south of the empire, which drained resources and led to neglect in the north. He eliminated court musicians and poets, further weakening the empire through the loss of cultural contributions and financial struggles.

The Anasazi and Pueblo peoples adapted to their environment by constructing underground kivas for religious ceremonies and utilizing natural resources in their construction and craftsmanship. They built villages from sandstone and adobe, creating pottery and blankets for trade with other tribes.

A new idea that emerged in Calvinism where God predetermined who would be saved or damned. This belief encouraged people to act morally to prove they were one of the 'elect' (chosen for salvation).

The Protestant belief that the Bible holds the ultimate authority, and even the Pope is subject to its teachings.

A period of reforms within the Catholic Church aimed at addressing criticisms and countering the spread of Protestantism. It included the Council of Trent, which clarified doctrines and addressed corruption.

A group of Catholic missionaries founded by Ignatius of Loyola to combat Protestantism and convert non-Catholics through missions and education.

A system of ruling where authority is based on skill and merit rather than inherited status, often used by empires like the Ottomans.

A city-state in Italy located strategically near the sea, with expertise in shipbuilding and trade. Venice dominated Mediterranean trade.

Venice imported goods like grain and exported textiles and glass, becoming a center of maritime trade.

Venice's location by the sea, ship-building expertise, and trade networks made it a prominent maritime power in the Mediterranean.

A ruling class system in the Ottoman Empire where nobles held government positions, but power was not hereditary because government officials were eunuchs.

A program in the Ottoman Empire where Christian boys were kidnapped, converted to Islam, and trained to be elite soldiers (Janissaries) or government bureaucrats.

The Ottoman Empire's controlled access to trade routes through the Mediterranean Sea, which proved mutually beneficial for both the Ottomans and Venice.

He conquered Constantinople, opening it to diverse populations and expanding Ottoman power.

He expanded Ottoman territory, created a law code, simplified taxes, limited government bureaucracy, and commissioned the construction of a magnificent mosque.

He captured the Islamic holy cities of Mecca, Medina, and Cairo, strengthening the Ottoman Empire's religious authority.

The Ottomans utilized muskets and cannons, demonstrating technological superiority in their conquest of the empire.

The early Ottomans used military conquest, alliances, and land purchases as methods to expand their empire.

The economic and social shifts that occurred in Europe after the Black Death, which led to a more prosperous and mobile population, fueling a demand for skilled labor and contributing to the Renaissance.

Wealth, particularly from trade and banking, played a crucial role in the Renaissance. It allowed for patrons to commission art, architecture, and scholarship, supporting a flourishing of creativity and intellectual pursuits.

The period of religious and political upheaval in Europe, beginning in the 16th century, during which the Catholic Church was challenged by several new Protestant denominations.

Martin Luther's key contribution to the Reformation was challenging Catholic doctrines such as indulgences (purchasing forgiveness) and the authority of the pope. He emphasized the Bible as the sole source of religious authority, leading to the development of Lutheranism.

John Calvin's teachings, known as Calvinism, focused on predestination (God's predetermined choice of who will be saved), a strong emphasis on moral discipline, and a simple, austere approach to religious worship.

Henry VIII's break from the Catholic Church and establishment of the Church of England was driven by his desire to divorce Catherine of Aragon and marry Anne Boleyn. This act, known as the English Reformation, led to religious and political turmoil in England.

The period of European expansion and exploration, beginning in the 15th century, driven by the desire for new trade routes, wealth, and knowledge. It led to encounters with new civilizations, the Columbian Exchange, and the establishment of European colonial empires.

The Spanish monarchy maintained tight control over its colonies in the Americas by establishing a system of enforced loyalty, appointing viceroys with extensive powers, and ensuring most viceroys were Spanish-born nobles.

Viceroys were the direct representatives of the Spanish king in the colonies, holding significant power in areas like military, economy, politics, and justice.

Viceroys received high salaries, privileges, and social status, along with the grandeur associated with their positions to ensure their loyalty to the crown.

The Spanish established a rigid social hierarchy in their colonies, placing Peninsulares (Spaniards born in Spain) at the top and granting them exclusive access to positions of power in government, the military, and the church.

The Spanish social hierarchy prevented unity and resistance among lower classes by limiting social mobility and concentrating power in the hands of a select few.

Depending on their race and birthplace, individuals were assigned a social rank in the Spanish colonial hierarchy. Spaniards born in Spain occupied the highest ranks while indigenous and enslaved populations held the lowest.

Individuals in the lowest rungs of the Spanish colonial hierarchy faced harsh treatment, including extreme cruelty due to their social status.

The Spanish military, equipped with horses and firearms, provided them with a significant advantage over indigenous populations who lacked similar military technology, allowing them to maintain control and conquer territories.

The Taj Mahal incorporated five key architectural elements: a main gateway, a garden, a mosque, a jawab (a mirroring structure of the mosque), and the mausoleum itself, featuring four towering minarets. This distinct structure, with its iconic elements, represents the pinnacle of Mughal architectural style.

The Mughal garden within the Taj Mahal complex embodies the Mughal style with its long water channels, walkways, fountains, and decorative trees. It symbolizes a combination of beauty and balance, reflecting the Mughal aesthetics.

Pietra dura, a hallmark of Mughal architecture, involves inlaying cut and colored stones into surfaces, creating intricate patterns and designs. This technique, similar to mosaic art, adds vibrant beauty and exquisite detail to the Taj Mahal.

The Taj Mahal features four minarets, common in mosques for Islamic prayer. These slender towers signify the mosque's architectural function and contribute to its overall beauty and grandeur.

The presence of Quranic lettering along the southern arch and the use of Arabic verses inscribed on the Taj Mahal in the form of calligraphy further strengthen its Islamic identity. These inscriptions reflect the deep-rooted Islamic faith of the Mughal rulers.

Barbaro's account depicts Mehmed II's army as a formidable force, employing powerful cannons to breach the walls and conquer the city. He paints a picture of a fierce, relentless army, using terms like 'wild beasts' and 'hounds' to emphasize their ferocity in battle.

An Ottoman perspective on these events would likely portray the Turkish army as heroic conquerors rather than barbaric beasts. The emphasis would likely be on the impressive use of cannons, the successful siege, and the triumph of the Ottoman Empire.

De Busbecq argued that the Ottoman Empire's strength stemmed from its unique social order, where power was not inherited. Instead, every high official earned their position through merit and demonstrated ability, fostering loyalty and competent leadership. This meritocratic system created a robust elite, contributing to the empire's longevity and strength.