Red Blood Cells Function and Structure
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Questions and Answers

What is the approximate percentage of plasma in the volume of blood?

  • 45%
  • 35%
  • 55% (correct)
  • 65%

    • What do the cells in the blood do when it is allowed to stand?

  • Remain suspended in the plasma
  • Sink to the bottom (correct)
  • Float to the top
  • Disappear

    • What is the function of blood in the body?

  • Transportation of both oxygen and nutrients (correct)
  • Transportation of oxygen only
  • Protection against diseases
  • Transportation of nutrients only

    • What is the approximate proportion of blood in a 70 kg man's body weight?

    <p>5.6%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate total blood volume in adults?

    <p>5-6 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood primarily maintains normal plasma osmotic pressure?

    <p>Albumin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of formation for immunoglobulins?

    <p>Lymphocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood is responsible for coagulation?

    <p>Clotting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does haemopoiesis primarily occur in adults?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells carry oxygen to the body's tissues and have no nucleus?

    <p>Erythrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the small, non-nucleated cells that play a role in blood clotting?

    <p>Platelets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the liquid component of blood that carries various dissolved and suspended substances?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of electrolytes in the body?

    <p>Muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do waste products carried in the blood go for excretion?

    <p>Kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood is responsible for transporting oxygen to the body's tissues?

    <p>Hemoglobin in red blood cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

    <p>Transporting oxygen and some carbon dioxide throughout the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate lifespan of erythrocytes (red blood cells)?

    <p>120 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What nutrients are required for erythrocyte production?

    <p>Vitamin B12 and folic acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule is a key component in haemoglobin production?

    <p>Iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many oxygen molecules can haemoglobin theoretically carry per cell?

    <p>Over a billion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does erythropoiesis occur in the body?

    <p>Red bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What shape do red blood cells (erythrocytes) typically have?

    <p>Biconcave disc shape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of haemoglobin in red blood cells?

    <p>Carrying oxygen and some carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nutrient is essential for absorption of iron from the diet?

    <p>Intrinsic factor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to oxygen when it binds to haemoglobin?

    <p>It forms oxyhaemoglobin and releases oxygen when necessary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key function of red blood cells?

    <p>Transporting oxygen to body tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood type is considered a universal recipient?

    <p>Type AB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of basophils in the body?

    <p>Promoting tissue inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average lifespan of neutrophils in the bloodstream?

    <p>6-9 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of blood has no antigens and is considered a universal donor?

    <p>Type O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of all granulocytes in terms of their nuclei?

    <p>Multilobed nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which leukocyte type is primarily involved in eliminating parasites?

    <p>Eosinophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of neutrophils in the body?

    <p>Protecting against bacterial invasion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the total leukocyte count do eosinophils and basophils typically account for?

    <p>&lt;5%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can an increase in leukocyte numbers indicate?

    <p>An inflammatory response or underlying disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the blood volume do leukocytes account for?

    <p>Less than 1%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood group makes both anti-A and anti-B antibodies?

    <p>Type AB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cells are leukocytes?

    <p>The largest blood cells, accounting for about 1% of the blood volume, and contain nuclei and some granules in their cytoplasm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is the primary producer of erythropoietin?

    <p>Kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to biliverdin in the liver?

    <p>It is converted to bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood group individuals have neither A nor B antibodies and can receive transfusions of either A or B blood?

    <p>Blood group AB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate percentage of the population having A or B antigens on their red cells?

    <p>55%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are erythrocytes broken down, releasing iron and biliverdin?

    <p>Spleen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Hypoxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood group individuals can donate to any blood group?

    <p>Blood group O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the lifespan of erythrocytes (red blood cells)?

    <p>120 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antigen system is mentioned as the most important blood group system?

    <p>ABO system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What molecule is excreted in bile after being changed from biliverdin in the liver?

    <p>Bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood was once unsuccessful due to the presence of incompatible blood group antigens?

    <p>Erythrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which molecule stimulates the production of proerythroblasts and the release of more reticulocytes into the blood?

    <p>Erythropoietin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component accounts for approximately 55% of the volume of blood?

    <p>Plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does erythropoiesis primarily occur in adults?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of body weight does blood make up in a 70 kg man?

    <p>7%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the small, non-nucleated cells that play a role in blood clotting?

    <p>Platelets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate lifespan of a red blood cell (erythrocyte)?

    <p>120 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Low pH or low oxygen levels (hypoxia)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of haemoglobin in red blood cells?

    <p>Transport oxygen to the body's tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate total blood volume in adults?

    <p>4-5 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nutrient is essential for the absorption of iron from the diet?

    <p>Vitamin C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are erythrocytes broken down, releasing iron and biliverdin?

    <p>Spleen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average number of erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the human body?

    <p>~30 trillion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood primarily maintains normal plasma osmotic pressure?

    <p>Plasma proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key function of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

    <p>Transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide throughout the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of formation for immunoglobulins?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of basophils in the body?

    <p>Release histamine and heparin during allergic reactions and inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of electrolytes in the body?

    <p>Maintain fluid balance, nerve function, and muscle contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of plasma proteins in the blood?

    <p>Maintaining osmotic pressure and acting as a carrier for various substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does haemopoiesis primarily occur in adults?

    <p>In flat bones, irregular bones, and the ends of long bones</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of leukocytes in the body?

    <p>Participating in immune responses and fighting infections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the body?

    <p>Carrying oxygen to the body's tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate percentage of water in plasma?

    <p>90-92%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of electrolytes in the body?

    <p>Maintaining acid-base balance, muscle contraction, and nerve impulse transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do waste products carried in the blood go for excretion?

    <p>To the kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells play a role in blood clotting?

    <p>Platelets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Low blood volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow giving rise to all blood cells?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is primarily responsible for producing plasma proteins?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are nutrients like glucose and amino acids transported from in the bloodstream?

    <p>Tissues for immediate use or storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of eosinophils in the body?

    <p>Eliminating parasites by releasing toxic chemicals from their granules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of basophils in the body?

    <p>Releasing histamine and heparin from their granules during allergic reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the average lifespan of neutrophils in the bloodstream?

    <p>6-9 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can an increase in leukocyte numbers indicate?

    <p>Inflammatory response or underlying disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood type is a universal recipient?

    <p>AB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate range of normal leukocyte counts in adult blood?

    <p>$4.4$ to $11.1 imes 10^9/L$</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood determines the compatibility of blood types for transfusion and pregnancy?

    <p>ABO system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neutrophils in the body?

    <p>Engaging in phagocytosis and killing foreign particles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of leukocytes in the immune response?

    <p>$Defence$ and immunity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most abundant type of leukocyte?

    <p>Neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of blood has no antigens and is a universal donor?

    <p>Type O blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cells are responsible for protecting the body against bacterial invasion, removing dead cells, and debris?

    <p>Neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Hypoxia (oxygen deficiency)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the primary site of erythropoiesis in adults?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate lifespan of erythrocytes (red blood cells)?

    <p>120 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood type is considered a universal donor?

    <p>Blood type O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to biliverdin in the liver?

    <p>Converted to bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood group individuals have neither A nor B antibodies and can receive transfusions of either A or B blood?

    <p>Blood group AB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

    <p>Transporting oxygen to tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when oxygen levels are low in constantly consuming tissues?

    <p>Increased oxygen release and higher tissue oxygen supply.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary reason for unsuccessful blood transfusions in the past?

    <p>Incompatible blood group antigens.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What organ is the primary producer of erythropoietin?

    <p>Kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What antigen system is the most important blood group system?

    <p>ABO system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are erythrocytes broken down, releasing iron and biliverdin?

    <p>Liver, spleen, and kidney</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of blood in the body?

    <p>Transporting oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component makes up approximately 55% of the volume of blood?

    <p>Plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of all granulocytes in terms of their nuclei?

    <p>Multilobed nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow giving rise to all blood cells?

    <p>Stromal cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Hypoxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are erythrocytes broken down, releasing iron and biliverdin?

    <p>Spleen, bone marrow, and liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate percentage of the population having A or B antigens on their red cells?

    <p>55%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which blood group individuals have neither A nor B antibodies and can receive transfusions of either A or B blood?

    <p>Blood group AB individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does haemopoiesis primarily occur in adults?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of basophils in the body?

    <p>Allergic reactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to biliverdin in the liver?

    <p>Converted to bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of neutrophils in the body?

    <p>Phagocytosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of red blood cells?

    <p>Oxygen transport</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood primarily maintains normal plasma osmotic pressure?

    <p>Plasma proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when oxygen levels are low in constantly consuming tissues?

    <p>Increased oxygen release and higher tissue oxygen supply</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood is responsible for transporting oxygen to the body's tissues?

    <p>Red blood cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of plasma proteins in the blood?

    <p>Acting as a carrier for various substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does haemopoiesis, or blood cell formation, occur primarily in adults?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of electrolytes in the body?

    <p>Maintaining muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate lifespan of a red blood cell (erythrocyte)?

    <p>120-150 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of leukocytes in the body?

    <p>Protecting against bacterial invasion and removing dead cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What molecule is excreted in bile after being changed from biliverdin in the liver?

    <p>Bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are nutrients like glucose and amino acids transported from in the bloodstream?

    <p>Intestines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of erythropoiesis in adults?

    <p>Bone marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow responsible for giving rise to?

    <p>All blood cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Low oxygen levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which component of blood primarily maintains normal plasma osmotic pressure?

    <p>Plasma proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where does carbon dioxide from tissue metabolism get transported to for excretion?

    <p>Lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of blood has neither A nor B antigens or antibodies, making it a universal recipient?

    <p>Type AB</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of basophils in the body?

    <p>Promoting tissue inflammation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where do waste products carried in the blood go for excretion?

    <p>Kidneys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic feature of all granulocytes in terms of their nuclei?

    <p>Multilobed nuclei</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of leukocyte is important in the immune response to bacterial infections and engages in phagocytosis?

    <p>Neutrophils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which antigen system is mentioned as the most important blood group system?

    <p>ABO system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main role of electrolytes in the body?

    <p>Regulating fluid balance and nerve function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate lifespan of a red blood cell (erythrocyte)?

    <p>3-4 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is primarily responsible for producing plasma proteins?

    <p>Liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate lifespan of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

    <p>120 days</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key component in haemoglobin production?

    <p>Vitamin B12</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of erythropoiesis in the red bone marrow?

    <p>Red marrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What stimulates the production of proerythroblasts and the release of more reticulocytes into the blood?

    <p>Erythropoietin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the theoretical oxygen-carrying capacity of haemoglobin per cell?

    <p>Over 1 billion oxygen molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which nutrient is essential for erythrocyte production?

    <p>Vitamin B12</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of red blood cells (erythrocytes) in the body?

    <p>Transport oxygen and carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production?

    <p>Low oxygen levels (hypoxia)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate proportion of blood in a 70 kg man's body weight?

    <p>6-7%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) make up 99% of all blood cells with a diameter of about 7μm and a biconcave disc shape.

    • Their main function is to transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide throughout the body, using haemoglobin for gas exchange.

    • Erythrocytes are flexible and lack intracellular organelles, increasing their haemoglobin content.

    • They have a lifespan of approximately 120 days and are continually replenished through erythropoiesis in the red bone marrow.

    • Erythrocyte development takes about 7 days and requires vitamin B12 and folic acid for synthesis.

    • The average human body contains around 30 trillion erythrocytes, and daily, about 1% are cleared and destroyed.

    • Haemoglobin, a large molecule, contains four globin chains and four haem units, allowing it to carry oxygen and has a theoretical oxygen-carrying capacity of over a billion oxygen molecules per cell.

    • Iron is a key component in haemoglobin production and must be absorbed bound to intrinsic factor while both vitamin B12 and folic acid are essential nutrients for erythrocyte production.

    • Absorption of iron from the diet is slow, making it a nutrient that can be easily deficient.

    • Oxygen binds reversibly with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin, releasing oxygen when necessary, such as in metabolic wasteland areas with low pH or low oxygen levels (hypoxia).

    • Erythropoiesis is the process of producing erythrocytes (red blood cells) in response to low oxygen levels in the body.

    • Oxygen levels are low in constantly consuming tissues, leading to increased oxygen release and higher tissue oxygen supply.

    • Conversely, high oxygen levels favor oxyhaemoglobin formation and lower oxygen release.

    • Hypoxia, or oxygen deficiency, is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production.

    • The kidney is the primary producer of erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of proerythroblasts and the release of more reticulocytes into the blood.

    • Erythrocytes have a lifespan of about 120 days and are broken down by macrophages in the spleen, bone marrow, and liver, releasing iron and biliverdin.

    • Biliverdin is changed to bilirubin in the liver and is excreted in bile.

    • Blood transfusions were once unsuccessful due to the presence of incompatible blood group antigens.

    • The ABO system is the most important blood group system, with about 55% of the population having A or B antigens on their red cells and the remaining 45% having neither (O).

    • Blood group AB individuals have neither A nor B antibodies and can receive transfusions of either A or B blood, making them "universal recipients."

    • Blood group O individuals have no A or B antigens on their red cells and can donate to any blood group, making them "universal donors."

    • However, other antigen systems on donor/recipient cells may be incompatible and cause a transfusion reaction, requiring cross-matching before transfusion.

    • The inheritance of ABO blood groups is described in Chapter 17.

    • The Rhesus system is another important blood group system, but it is not mentioned in detail in the text.

    • The total blood volume in adults is approximately 5-6 liters, with 80 mL/kg in males and 70 mL/kg in females.

    • Blood maintains a constant environment for body cells, and homeostatic mechanisms keep blood volume and constituents within narrow limits.

    • Plasma is the liquid component of blood that carries various dissolved and suspended substances, including:

      • Water (90-92%)
      • Plasma proteins (7%)
      • Inorganic salts (electrolytes)
      • Nutrients
      • Hormones
      • Gases

    • Plasma proteins are primarily responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure in the blood and keeping fluid within the circulation. They are primarily formed in the liver, except for immunoglobulins produced by lymphocytes.

      • Albumin (60% of total plasma proteins) maintains normal plasma osmotic pressure and acts as a carrier for various substances.
      • Globulins function as antibodies, transport hormones and minerals, and inhibit proteolytic enzymes.
      • Clotting factors are responsible for coagulation of blood.

    • Electrolytes play various roles in the body, including muscle contraction, nerve impulse transmission, and maintaining acid-base balance.

    • Nutrients, such as glucose, amino acids, and vitamins, are transported in the bloodstream from sites of production or absorption to the tissues for immediate use or storage.

    • Waste products, including urea, creatinine, and uric acid, are formed in the liver and carried in the blood to the kidneys for excretion.

    • Carbon dioxide from tissue metabolism is transported to the lungs for excretion.

    • Hormones are chemical messengers synthesized by endocrine glands and transported in the blood to their target tissues and organs.

    • Oxygen, which is not very soluble in water, is transported in the blood bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells.

    • Pluripotent stem cells in bone marrow give rise to all blood cells, which go through several developmental stages before entering the bloodstream.

    • Haemopoiesis, or blood cell formation, occurs primarily in flat bones, irregular bones, and the ends of long bones in adults.

    • Erythrocytes (red blood cells) carry oxygen to the body's tissues and have no nucleus.

    • Leukocytes (white blood cells) are part of the immune system, have a nucleus, and help fight infections.

    • Platelets are small, non-nucleated cells that play a role in blood clotting.

    • Erythropoiesis is the process of producing erythrocytes (red blood cells) in response to low oxygen levels in the body.

    • Oxygen levels are low in constantly consuming tissues, leading to increased oxygen release and higher tissue oxygen supply.

    • Conversely, high oxygen levels favor oxyhaemoglobin formation and lower oxygen release.

    • Hypoxia, or oxygen deficiency, is the primary stimulus for increased erythropoiesis and erythropoietin production.

    • The kidney is the primary producer of erythropoietin, which stimulates the production of proerythroblasts and the release of more reticulocytes into the blood.

    • Erythrocytes have a lifespan of about 120 days and are broken down by macrophages in the spleen, bone marrow, and liver, releasing iron and biliverdin.

    • Biliverdin is changed to bilirubin in the liver and is excreted in bile.

    • Blood transfusions were once unsuccessful due to the presence of incompatible blood group antigens.

    • The ABO system is the most important blood group system, with about 55% of the population having A or B antigens on their red cells and the remaining 45% having neither (O).

    • Blood group AB individuals have neither A nor B antibodies and can receive transfusions of either A or B blood, making them "universal recipients."

    • Blood group O individuals have no A or B antigens on their red cells and can donate to any blood group, making them "universal donors."

    • However, other antigen systems on donor/recipient cells may be incompatible and cause a transfusion reaction, requiring cross-matching before transfusion.

    • The inheritance of ABO blood groups is described in Chapter 17.

    • The Rhesus system is another important blood group system, but it is not mentioned in detail in the text.

    • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) make up 99% of all blood cells with a diameter of about 7μm and a biconcave disc shape.

    • Their main function is to transport oxygen and some carbon dioxide throughout the body, using haemoglobin for gas exchange.

    • Erythrocytes are flexible and lack intracellular organelles, increasing their haemoglobin content.

    • They have a lifespan of approximately 120 days and are continually replenished through erythropoiesis in the red bone marrow.

    • Erythrocyte development takes about 7 days and requires vitamin B12 and folic acid for synthesis.

    • The average human body contains around 30 trillion erythrocytes, and daily, about 1% are cleared and destroyed.

    • Haemoglobin, a large molecule, contains four globin chains and four haem units, allowing it to carry oxygen and has a theoretical oxygen-carrying capacity of over a billion oxygen molecules per cell.

    • Iron is a key component in haemoglobin production and must be absorbed bound to intrinsic factor while both vitamin B12 and folic acid are essential nutrients for erythrocyte production.

    • Absorption of iron from the diet is slow, making it a nutrient that can be easily deficient.

    • Oxygen binds reversibly with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin, releasing oxygen when necessary, such as in metabolic wasteland areas with low pH or low oxygen levels (hypoxia).

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