Realism in International Relations
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What is the primary focus of realism in international relations?

  • International law
  • Global cooperation
  • Power dynamics (correct)
  • Moral reasoning

    • How did realism emerge as a theoretical framework in international relations?

  • It promotes the idea of inherent goodness in human nature.
  • It was a response to the failures of the League of Nations. (correct)
  • It was developed from the principles of idealism.
  • It emphasizes the importance of organizations in global governance.

    • Which historical figure is associated with the phrase, 'the strong do what they have the power to do and the weak accept what they have to accept'?

  • Thucydides (correct)
  • Niccolò Machiavelli
  • Woodrow Wilson
  • Sun Tzu

    • What does idealism emphasize in the context of international relations?

    <p>International law and morality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did realists criticize idealists for after World War II?

    <p>Focusing on how the world ought to be</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What influence did the Cold War have on realism?

    <p>It provided a practical application for containment policies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What strategic advice did Sun Tzu offer to rulers during the warring states period?

    <p>Use power effectively to advance interests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Machiavellian' refer to in political strategy?

    <p>Unethical manipulation for power.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one of the unintended consequences of the conflict in Libya in 2012?

    <p>Militants occupied northern Mali after seizing weapons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a tangible element of state power?

    <p>Natural resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the U.S. respond to the initial military superiority of Japan during World War II?

    <p>By rebuilding its military capabilities using economic resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do realists prioritize as the key element of national power?

    <p>Military force</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was Robert Gates's emphasis regarding U.S. spending after the 9/11 attacks?

    <p>Elevated spending on diplomacy and economic aid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes the concept of anarchy in international relations?

    <p>States function autonomously without a central authority.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most important norm in the context of state sovereignty?

    <p>States have the right to govern without interference.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In geopolitics, what is a key factor that enhances a state's power?

    <p>Secure allies and bases near rivals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can overuse of moralistic rhetoric by a state potentially lead to?

    <p>Damage to the state's credibility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'fungible' imply regarding elements of power?

    <p>Elements can be converted into one another to some degree.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common problem caused by the anarchic nature of the international system?

    <p>Difficulty in enforcing collective goods.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'self-help' imply for states in an anarchic international system?

    <p>States must ensure their own security and interests.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is significant about the melting of the continental ice shelf in terms of geopolitics?

    <p>It opens new shipping routes affecting military strategy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Thomas Hobbes advocate for to impose order in society?

    <p>A strong monarchy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept do realists reject in terms of influencing state actions regarding national power?

    <p>Moral considerations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Hans Morgenthau, what should guide a nation’s actions?

    <p>Prudence and practicality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do realists typically perceive national interests?

    <p>Defined in terms of power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one major limitation of defining power in terms of influence?

    <p>It leads to circular reasoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested as the best single indicator of a state's power?

    <p>GDP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of soft power?

    <p>Cultural diplomacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Realists are primarily concerned with which aspect of power?

    <p>Relative power between states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which condition would likely indicate a strong potential for a state’s power?

    <p>Technological advancements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major event reflected realists' concerns regarding military power post-9/11?

    <p>The Iraq invasion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factors are crucial for effective power mobilization?

    <p>National will and strategy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role did NATO play in the Libyan revolution of 2011?

    <p>Launched an air campaign</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do realists believe about ideologies, religions, and cultural factors in state actions?

    <p>They do not significantly influence state actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do realists typically define the concept of power?

    <p>The potential to get another actor to act against their interest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key mechanism for maintaining the balance of power?

    <p>Forming alliances against threatening states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which concept describes the distribution of power in the international system?

    <p>Polarity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did neorealism primarily emphasize in international relations?

    <p>Distribution of power in the international system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which period did the United States form alliances to encircle the Soviet Union?

    <p>The Cold War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a unipolar system, power is concentrated in how many centers?

    <p>One</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which countries were involved in the 'strategic triangle' during the 1960s and 1970s?

    <p>USA, Soviet Union, China</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does power transition theory suggest about the largest wars?

    <p>They result from a rising power challenging the top position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of international system is described as having multiple centers of power that are stable yet prone to wars?

    <p>Multipolar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used to describe smaller states that ally with the most powerful state instead of balancing against it?

    <p>Bandwagoners</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a bipolar system typically indicate?

    <p>Two predominant states or rival alliance blocs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is cited as weakening the empirical support for maintaining peace through a multipolar system?

    <p>The dominance of hegemonic powers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a rising power's status diverging from its actual power?

    <p>Relative deprivation among its people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which state is mentioned as having played the role of a balancer historically in Europe?

    <p>Britain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What reaction did Japan show in response to China's growing power in 2012-2013?

    <p>Military agreements with South Korea and the Philippines</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What challenge does the concept of sovereignty pose for foreign intervention in cases like genocide?

    <p>Sovereignty restricts intervention even for altruistic reasons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the absence of a world police play in international relations?

    <p>It complicates the enforcement of international agreements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was North Korea's response after it violated the Non-Proliferation Treaty in the 1990s?

    <p>North Korea withdrew from the treaty and developed nuclear weapons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the current geopolitical landscape affect the concept of the territorial state?

    <p>Economic integration and technology make territorial states less significant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What underlying principle does the balance of power concept illustrate in international relations?

    <p>Power dynamics between states can prevent domination of any single state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does the security dilemma have on state interactions?

    <p>It leads to arms races and heightened tensions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major event strained U.S.-Iranian relations in 1979?

    <p>The takeover of the U.S. embassy by Iranian students.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do election monitors have in international relations?

    <p>To detect fraud and uphold democratic processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do diplomatic norms facilitate international interactions?

    <p>They consider embassies as territory of the home state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did scholars raise concerns about concerning the role of states in the international system?

    <p>States face significant challenges, including fragmentation and integration.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did China respond to the discovery of listening devices on its presidential plane?

    <p>China chose not to escalate the issue to maintain relations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major concern arises from technology's impact on state sovereignty?

    <p>Diminished territorial integrity and state autonomy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by hegemony in international relations?

    <p>One state having a predominant power to control international relations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which example is historically associated with U.S. hegemony?

    <p>The period following World War II.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common assumption about hegemony from the perspective of less powerful states?

    <p>It can infringe on their sovereignty.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does power transition theory suggest about achieving peace among powerful states?

    <p>It happens when one state holds clear dominance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Britain maintain its hegemony during the Pax Britannica?

    <p>By controlling world trade and naval capabilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event is often linked to the decline of U.S. hegemony?

    <p>The Great Depression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect is NOT typically associated with hegemony according to hegemonic stability theory?

    <p>Aggressive military expansions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the U.S. position itself after World War I?

    <p>As an isolationist state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did Antonio Gramsci conceptualize hegemony?

    <p>As a complex of ideas maintaining control without force.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason why the U.S. has experienced ambivalence toward its hegemony?

    <p>Historical shifts between isolationist and internationalist policies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which global impact is attributed to U.S. hegemony after World War II?

    <p>The establishment of a global economic framework.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of alliances in international relations?

    <p>To enhance members' power by combining capabilities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can alliances change over time?

    <p>They can change based on shifting national interests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'burden sharing' refer to in the context of alliances?

    <p>The distribution of alliance costs among members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable characteristic of NATO regarding its military leadership?

    <p>The NATO allied supreme commander is always a U.S. general</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the Ukraine War affect NATO's alliance cohesion?

    <p>It strengthened NATO’s cohesion with strong support expressed by member states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the concept of 'alliance cohesion'?

    <p>How easily members maintain their alliance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What historical example illustrates how alliances can form in response to perceived threats?

    <p>Allied response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant risk for powerful states that form commitments with smaller 'client states'?

    <p>They may be drawn into costly wars over minor disputes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Article V of NATO dictate?

    <p>Members must assist another member under attack</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a reason for states to maintain alliances?

    <p>Forming personal relationships with other states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Lord Palmerston imply about international relations?

    <p>There are no permanent allies or enemies, only interests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant factor leading to the election of President Donald Trump in 2016?

    <p>Economic challenges and opposition to the Iraq War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does cooperation play in alliance cohesion?

    <p>It increases routine and institutional practices among members</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach emphasizes working through international institutions to enhance U.S. power?

    <p>Multilateralism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Warsaw Pact was established as a response to what?

    <p>The formation of NATO</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key feature of the Westphalian system established by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648?

    <p>Principles of state sovereignty and territorial integrity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement is true about alliances during the Cold War?

    <p>Conflicts over burden sharing arose even with high cohesion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did the Obama administration approach international conflicts in comparison to its predecessors?

    <p>Focusing on multilateral approaches</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event demonstrated U.S. unilateralism in the early 2000s?

    <p>The 2003 U.S.-led war in Iraq</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact did the Congress of Vienna have on international relations in the early 19th century?

    <p>It reaffirmed state sovereignty principles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key reason realists are pessimistic about cooperative solutions to collective goods problems?

    <p>The lack of strong central authority in the international system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a characteristic of the Concert of Europe that followed the Napoleonic Wars?

    <p>Cooperation among the five most powerful states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the game of Chicken, what is the primary strategy for one player to ensure victory?

    <p>To commit irrevocably not to swerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region's conflicts have historical roots in the power struggle between the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary?

    <p>Eastern Europe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What historical event is often analyzed through the lens of the game of Chicken?

    <p>The Cuban Missile Crisis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the United States prioritize during the Cold War?

    <p>Gaining allies and influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributed to the rise of the United States as a significant power by the early 20th century?

    <p>Industrialization and military expansion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome was projected if India and Pakistan had gone to war in 2002?

    <p>Up to 12 million deaths</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What shift occurred following the collapse of the Soviet Union around 1990?

    <p>A more cooperative international system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What recent trend has emerged regarding U.S. involvement in international organizations under the Trump administration?

    <p>Withdrawal from multiple global treaties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major conflict was driven by the balance of power tensions among European states in the early modern period?

    <p>The Thirty Years' War</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is often regarded as a key feature of alliances formed among states?

    <p>They endure over time and across various issues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant event prompted Finland and Sweden to express interest in joining NATO?

    <p>Russia's invasion of Ukraine.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which military operation is recognized as NATO's first use of force?

    <p>Bosnia support mission.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a key factor that undermined NATO's effectiveness during the Bosnian conflict?

    <p>UN hesitations about retaliation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary reason for the formation of the Eurocorps?

    <p>To conduct military operations independently of NATO.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How did NATO troops engage in Afghanistan from 2003 to 2014?

    <p>As part of the ISAF mission under NATO leadership.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement correctly describes the U.S.-Japanese Security Treaty?

    <p>The U.S. maintains troops in Japan to counter Russian threats.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary operational focus of Japan’s Self-Defense Forces?

    <p>Territorial defense.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which year did NATO's intervention in Libya take place?

    <ol start="2011"> <li></li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

    What was one outcome of the Kosovo War for NATO?

    <p>It strengthened NATO's alliance cohesion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect did the 2003 Iraq War have on NATO alliances?

    <p>Divided NATO members regarding participation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How has Russia responded to NATO's expansion into Eastern Europe?

    <p>By viewing it as an aggressive action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the Partnership for Peace aim to address regarding NATO?

    <p>It aimed to facilitate military cooperation with former Soviet states.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a notable impact of Japan's constitution on its military policy?

    <p>It constrained Japan's military capabilities for offensive operations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role has Japan played in U.S. military strategy in Asia?

    <p>Japan has acted as a key staging area during conflicts such as the Korean War.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true regarding the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)?

    <p>Georgia withdrew from the CIS after a military conflict with Russia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines the Non-Aligned Movement during the Cold War?

    <p>A group of states that sought to distance themselves from both superpowers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a significant outcome of the Arab-Israeli conflict in the late 20th century?

    <p>Jordan established peace with Israel in 1994.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been a strategic focus for the United States in the Middle East?

    <p>Supporting nations like Egypt and Saudi Arabia.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the relationship between China and North Korea?

    <p>China views North Korea as a valuable counterbalance to regional threats.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the main mission of the African Union's initial deployment of troops in Darfur in 2004?

    <p>To respond to allegations of genocide.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How has U.S. policy shifted towards India and China since the Cold War?

    <p>The U.S. has improved relations with both countries.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major political dynamics exist between Saudi Arabia and Iran?

    <p>They represent opposing sects and vie for regional dominance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has complicated Turkey's relations with both Iran and Saudi Arabia?

    <p>Turkey's evolving Islamist political stance and regional ambitions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What has been the general trend of NATO alliances since the Russian invasion of Ukraine?

    <p>NATO has been unified in response to the invasion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of statecraft according to classical realists?

    <p>The art of managing state affairs and power politics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What signifies America's ongoing commitment to Asian security affairs?

    <p>The presence of U.S. military personnel in Japan.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What central dilemma do states face regarding their military forces in peacetime?

    <p>Deciding the size of standing military forces to prevent a quick defeat without straining the economy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the strategy of deterrent aim to accomplish?

    <p>Prevent negative actions by threatening punishment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does China view Taiwan in relation to its international stance?

    <p>As a territory under its jurisdiction that risks an invasion if independence is declared.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary tactic used by China to counter Taiwan's diplomatic efforts?

    <p>Breaking diplomatic relations with countries recognizing Taiwan.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the strategy of using increasingly severe sanctions to compel compliance?

    <p>Escalation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one consequence of an arms race between states?

    <p>Increased likelihood of conflict due to mutual escalation of threats.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difficulty in estimating a nation's will to use military force?

    <p>Leaders may bluff about their intentions to use force.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does compellence refer to in international relations?

    <p>Threatening force to make another actor take a specific action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does rationality play in the actions of powerful states?

    <p>States behave as rational actors that can coherently assess their interests and actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following exemplifies China's strategy of rational power deployment?

    <p>Threatening military action against Taiwan's independence declarations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do scholars fear might happen as a result of escalation strategies during conflicts?

    <p>An eventual outbreak of nuclear conflict.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does China’s use of vetoes in the UN illustrate its strategic priorities?

    <p>It prioritizes influence regarding Taiwan over other strategic objectives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a likely outcome of having no credible deterrence in international relations?

    <p>Heightened risks of military aggression.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the cost-benefit analysis performed by rational actors in international relations?

    <p>To calculate the costs and benefits of possible actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the unitary actor assumption simplify the analysis of power dynamics in international relations?

    <p>It assumes that actors can act without internal conflicts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a zero-sum game from a non-zero-sum game?

    <p>In a zero-sum game, one player's gain equals another's loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome when rational actors engage in a Prisoner's Dilemma scenario?

    <p>Both players end up with worse outcomes due to individual choices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role has game theory played in the study of international relations?

    <p>It aims to predict bargaining outcomes among rational actors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best defines national interest?

    <p>The collective interests of government, groups, and conflicts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one limitation of rationality assumptions in international relations?

    <p>They assume actors are fully informed and always accurate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why might states not pursue actions that lead to war if they expect to lose?

    <p>The costs do not outweigh the political benefits.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What obstacles do actors face when calculating costs in international scenarios?

    <p>The challenge of measuring intangible benefits against tangible costs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does applying game theory to real world interactions require from players?

    <p>Players must choose moves rationally to maximize their payoffs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of international relations, how might the concept of rationality be misrepresented?

    <p>It overlooks the impact of unpredictable human behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a significant use of game theory during the 1950s and 1960s?

    <p>Understanding nuclear war contingencies between superpowers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define anarchy and explain why it makes international cooperation difficult

    Signup and view all the answers

    A) What is polarity? B) Describe different types of polarity C) Which one is considered the most ideal and why?

    Signup and view all the answers

    Describe the prisoner’s dilemma and why it is an analogy for the international system

    Signup and view all the answers

    What is power, and what are two ways of measuring it?

    Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Realism in International Relations

    • Realism is a central theoretical framework that explains international relations mainly in terms of power.
    • It contrasts with idealism, which emphasizes international law, morality, and international organizations.
    • Realism developed as a response to the perceived unrealistic idealism of the liberal tradition, particularly active between World War I and World War II.
    • Realists draw from a long tradition, including the teachings of Chinese strategist Sun Tzu, Greek historian Thucydides, and Italian philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli.
    • Realists view political power as separate from and more important than morality, ideology, and other social and economic factors.
    • They believe that ideologies, religions, and cultural factors do not significantly influence state actions regarding national power.
    • Realists assume that international relations are best explained by states acting as autonomous actors, rationally pursuing their own interests in a system of sovereign states without a central authority.

    Power in International Relations

    • Power is often defined as the ability to get another actor to do something they would not have done otherwise, or to prevent them from doing something they would have done.
    • Power is treated as influence, with powerful actors being those who can affect others more than they are affected in return.
    • Many IR scholars believe this potential is based on tangible and intangible characteristics or possessions of states, such as size, income levels, and armed forces.
    • The best single indicator of a state’s power might be its GDP, which reflects size, technological level, and wealth.
    • Power also relies on nonmaterial elements, such as national will, diplomatic skill, popular support for the government, etc.
    • International influence can be achieved by shaping the rules of behavior and changing how others perceive their interests, known as soft power.
    • Realists focus on relative power, which is the ratio of power between two states.

    Elements of Power

    • State power is eclectic, including both tangible and intangible elements.
    • Tangible elements include total GDP, population, territory, geography, and natural resources.
    • Intangible elements include political culture, patriotism, education, scientific and technological strength, credibility of commitments, and the ability to influence other states through culture and values.
    • Money is the most fungible capability as it can be used to acquire other capabilities.
    • Realists prioritize military force as the key element of national power in the short term, viewing other elements like economic strength, diplomacy, and moral legitimacy as important only if they can be converted into military power.
    • Geopolitics refers to the use of geography as an element of power, often linked to the logistical needs of military forces.

    The International System

    • The international system is anarchic, meaning there is no central government to enforce rules.
    • States rely on self-help, allies, and international norms to navigate interactions, with the power of one state countered by others.
    • The most important norm is sovereignty, which means that a government has the right to govern its own territory without interference from higher authorities.
    • The absence of a “world police” makes enforcing international agreements challenging.
    • States are fundamentally based on territory, and respecting the territorial integrity of all states within recognized borders is a key principle of international relations.
    • States have established diplomatic norms to facilitate interactions, treating embassies as the territory of the home state.
    • Realists in international relations (IR) recognize that the rules often lead to a security dilemma.
    • The security dilemma arises from the anarchy in the international system.

    Balance of Power

    • The term “balance of power” refers to the concept of using the power of one or more states to balance that of another state or group of states.
    • This can refer to any ratio of power capabilities between states or alliances, a relatively equal ratio, or the historical process of forming counterbalancing coalitions to prevent one state from dominating an entire region.

    Balance of Power

    • Refers to the ratio of power between states or alliances.
    • Can be understood as a relatively equal ratio, or the process of forming counterbalancing coalitions to prevent one state from dominating a region.
    • A key concept in international relations, suggesting that regular counterbalancing maintains international stability.
    • Stability does not equal peace, it is maintained through recurrent wars that adjust power relations.
    • Alliances are crucial for maintaining the balance of power.
    • While building up one's own capabilities is a form of power balancing, forming alliances against a threatening state is often more efficient.
    • During the Cold War, the United States used alliances to contain the Soviet Union.
    • Some states act as balancers, shifting their support to oppose the strongest state or alliance.
    • States may balance against threats rather than raw power.
    • Small states play rival powers against each other for their benefit.
    • Post-Cold War era predictions of a closer relationship between Russia, China, and Europe to counter the United States have somewhat unfolded.
    • In recent years, more countries are balancing against China rather than the United States.

    Power Distribution

    • Realists believe the most important characteristic of the international system is power distribution.
    • Neorealism, based on structural realism, explains international events based on the international distribution of power.
    • Polarity refers to the distribution of power within the international system, including both underlying power and alliance groupings.
    • Multipolar system has five or six independent centers of power not grouped into alliances.
    • Tripolar systems are rare due to the tendency for two-against-one alliances to form.
    • Bipolar system has two predominant states or rival alliance blocs.
    • Unipolar system has a single center of power, known as hegemony.
    • Some argue peace is best maintained by a relatively equal power distribution (multipolarity).
    • However, empirical evidence suggests peace is best preserved by hegemony (unipolarity) and followed by bipolarity.
    • Power transition theory suggests the largest wars occur when a rising power challenges the top position in the status hierarchy.
    • Deadly interstate conflicts are most likely when power is relatively equally distributed.
    • Status quo powers seek to maintain the existing rules, while challengers may seek to change them.
    • If a challenger doesn't initiate a war, the dominant power may provoke a preventive war to halt their rise.

    Hegemony

    • Refers to one state holding a preponderance of power in the international system, allowing it to dominate rules and arrangements.
    • This state is called a hegemon.
    • While hegemony usually means world domination, it can also refer to regional domination.
    • Hegemony can extend to the dominance of ideas like democracy and capitalism.
    • Two key examples of hegemony are Britain in the nineteenth century and the United States after World War II.
    • Hegemonic decline may occur when hegemons overextend themselves with costly military commitments.
    • Hegemonic stability theory suggests hegemony provides order in the international system, like a central government.
    • Hegemons can help manage conflicts among states and enforce rules unilaterally.
    • They can also maintain global free trade and promote economic growth.
    • Hegemony can be seen as an infringement on state sovereignty and may appear unjust or illegitimate.
    • The United States has a history of ambivalence about its own hegemony, alternating between internationalist and isolationist approaches.
    • The U.S. also oscillates between unilateralism and multilateralism in international engagement.

    The Early Westphalian System, 1500-2000

    • The modern international system, characterized by powerful states, sovereignty, balance of power, and periods of hegemony, is often traced back to the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
    • The Treaty of Westphalia established the principles of independent, sovereign states that continue to shape international relations today.
    • A key aspect of this system was the ability of one state or a coalition to balance the power of another, preventing the creation of a universal empire.
    • The power-balancing system focuses on a few states with strong military capabilities and global interests.
    • The specific members of this system have changed over time, but the balance of power among the top states has been a constant feature.
    • The most powerful states in sixteenth-century Europe were Britain (England), France, Austria-Hungary, and Spain.
    • In the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), the Catholic Hapsburg countries, including Austria-Hungary and Spain, were defeated by mostly Protestant northern European countries.
    • The 1648 Treaty of Westphalia established the principles of state sovereignty and territorial integrity, which have defined the international system ever since.
    • Britain's power increased with industrialization in the eighteenth century, making France its main rival.
    • During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), France was defeated by a coalition including Britain, the Netherlands, Austria-Hungary, Spain, Russia, and Prussia.
    • The Congress of Vienna (1815) ended the war and reaffirmed state sovereignty principles.
    • By the early twentieth century, the United States, Japan, and Italy had emerged as new rising powers.
    • After Prussia's victories over Austria and France, a larger Germany challenged Britain's dominance.
    • In World War I, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were defeated by a coalition including Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and the United States.
    • Germany, Italy, and Japan were defeated in World War II by a coalition of the United States, the UK, France, Russia (the Soviet Union), and China.
    • These five World War II victors are now the permanent members of the UN Security Council.
    • After World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union became adversaries in the Cold War.
    • The Cold War ended around 1990 with the collapse of the Soviet Union, leading to a more cooperative international system among powerful states.

    Alliances

    • An alliance is a coalition of states coordinating their actions to achieve a common goal, often formalized in written treaties and focused on international security.

    • Alliances can change quickly and decisively, often forming in response to perceived threats.

    • Realists highlight the fluidity of alliances, viewing them as marriages of convenience based on national interests.

    • Breaking an alliance can damage a state's reputation and complicate future alliances.

    • There are numerous examples of fluid alliances, such as Richard Nixon's cooperation with Mao Zedong in 1972.

    • The purposes of alliances include enhancing members' power by combining capabilities.### Alliances and Cohesion

    • Alliances can shift quickly, surprising many. Realists are not surprised by the fluidity of alliances.

    • The security dilemma is exacerbated by alliances as each state must build defenses against potential alliances of its enemy with a third state.

    • Alliance cohesion refers to how easily members maintain their alliance. Cohesion is strong when national interests align and cooperation is normalized.

    • Burden sharing refers to the distribution of costs of an alliance among members. Conflicts can arise over how these costs are shared.

    • Powerful states often form alliances with smaller states, known as client states.

    • Extended deterrence is when a strong state threatens retaliation against an attacker to deter attacks on its weaker clients.

    • The Soviet Union worried about its commitments to China, Cuba, Syria, and Egypt as it risked being drawn into wars over minor issues.

    • The Ukraine War has strengthened NATO's alliance cohesion, with President Biden expressing strong support for the alliance.

    NATO

    • NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) includes Western Europe and North America and accounts for nearly half the world's GDP.
    • NATO was created in 1949 to deter Soviet power in Europe.
    • Its Eastern European counterpart, the Warsaw Pact, was established in 1955 and disbanded in 1991.
    • Article V of NATO requires members to defend an ally under attack.
    • Initially meant to protect Western Europe from the Soviet Union, it was first invoked after the 2001 terrorist attacks to defend the U.S.
    • In 2022, following Russia's invasion of Ukraine, Finland and Sweden expressed interest in joining NATO, with Finland joining in spring 2023 and Sweden on the path to accession.
    • NATO first used force in Bosnia in 1994 to support a UN mission. A “dual key” arrangement gave the UN control over NATO’s actions, but the UN feared retaliation against its peacekeepers if NATO attacked Serbian forces. This undermined NATO’s credibility.
    • Later actions in the Balkans, such as the air war for Kosovo in 1999 and peacekeeping in Macedonia in 2001, were more successful.
    • NATO’s 2011 intervention in Libya, using air power to support rebels to overthrow the dictator, was considered a great success.
    • NATO troops from several member countries fought Taliban forces in Afghanistan from 2003 to 2014. These forces, known as the International Security Assistance Forces (ISAF), were under NATO leadership. The ISAF mission ended in 2015 and was replaced by the Resolute Support mission. In 2021, all NATO-aligned military forces withdrew from Afghanistan, allowing the Taliban to regain power.
    • The European Union formed its own rapid deployment force, Eurocorps, partly due to military weaknesses shown in the 1999 Kosovo war. While Eurocorps often works with NATO, it provides Europe more independence from the U.S.
    • In 2003, the EU sent peacekeeping forces to the Democratic Republic of Congo. This marked the first multinational European military operation outside NATO.
    • In 2004, NATO and U.S. forces withdrew from Bosnia, handing over peacekeeping to the EU, as they had in Macedonia. However, NATO forces, including U.S. soldiers, remain in Kosovo.
    • NATO’s recent eastward expansion beyond the Cold War dividing line is a significant issue.
    • ** Since 1999, former Soviet bloc countries have joined NATO.** This aims to solidify new democracies and protect against potential Russian aggression.
    • The 2003 Iraq War bypassed and divided NATO members. France and Germany opposed the war and Turkey refused U.S. ground forces access. U.S. leaders have shifted some operations to new Eastern European members while reducing forces in Germany.
    • Russian leaders view NATO’s expansion as aggressive and anti-Russian. This perception strengthens nationalist and anti-Western political forces in Russia.
    • To address these concerns, NATO created the Partnership for Peace, which includes almost all Eastern European and former Soviet states, including Russia.
    • Tensions between Russia and NATO have escalated since Russia’s invasions of Ukraine in 2014 and 2022. NATO has heavily armed Ukraine.
    • In 2016, Russia moved to protect its ally, the Syrian government. Russia has also expanded military cooperation with countries like Venezuela and China.

    U.S.-Japanese Security Treaty

    • The U.S.-Japanese Security Treaty is a bilateral alliance established in 1951 to counter the potential Soviet threat to Japan.
    • The U.S. maintains nearly 50,000 troops in Japan, along with weapons, equipment, and logistical support. Japan pays the U.S. several billion dollars annually to cover about half the cost.
    • The U.S. is committed to defending Japan if attacked, but Japan does not have a reciprocal obligation.
    • U.S. troops are stationed in Japan, but not the other way around.
    • The U.S.-Japan alliance is asymmetrical.
    • Japan’s constitution, written by U.S. General Douglas MacArthur after World War II, renounces the right to wage war and maintain military forces.
    • This prohibition has been interpreted more loosely over time.
    • In 2015, Japan’s parliament approved a law allowing the use of military force overseas.
    • Japan’s Self-Defense Forces are strong enough for territorial defense but not for aggression.
    • Some Japanese leaders believe Japan’s security role should match its economic power.
    • Japanese troops have participated in non-combat roles in Afghanistan (2001) and Iraq (2004).
    • The UN is also encouraging Japan to fully participate in peacekeeping missions.
    • The United States has leveraged its alliance with Japan to project power in Asia, particularly during the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War (1964-1975). Japan served as a key staging area.
    • The ongoing U.S. military presence in Japan symbolizes America’s commitment to Asian security affairs.

    Other Alliances

    • The U.S. maintains military alliances with several other states, including Australia and South Korea.
    • There are 35,000 U.S. military personnel stationed in South Korea under a bilateral alliance dating to the Korean War.
    • Close U.S. collaboration with militaries in other states such as Israel makes them de facto U.S. allies.
    • The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) includes nine former Soviet republics, excluding the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania).
    • Russia is the leading member, with Ukraine being the second largest.
    • While there is some military coordination within the CIS, plans for a joint military force were unsuccessful.
    • Kazakhstan and Belarus are closely aligned with Russia, whereas Ukraine is the most independent and never officially ratified the CIS agreement.
    • Georgia withdrew from the CIS in 2009 following its 2008 military conflict with Russia.

    Regional Alignments

    • Most international alignments and coalitions are not formalized in alliances beyond the discussed alliances and regional IGOs.
    • Powerful actors in the international system have developed close relationships, though China and Russia remain somewhat independent.
    • During the Cold War, many states joined a nonaligned movement to stay apart from the U.S.-Soviet rivalry.
    • This movement, led by India, Egypt, Indonesia, and Yugoslavia, was weakened by the membership of states like Cuba, which were clearly aligned with one of the superpowers.
    • At the turn of the century, the 53-member Organisation of African Unity re-formed as the African Union (AU).
    • The AU’s first major test was the 2004 allegations of genocide in Darfur, Sudan, leading to the deployment of 3,000 AU troops alongside a larger UN peacekeeping force.
    • China has been loosely aligned with Pakistan against India, which was aligned with the Soviet Union. The U.S. also favored Pakistan but has improved relations with both India and China since the Cold War.
    • China has a loose alliance with North Korea, valuing it as a counterbalance to South Korea, though it has concerns about North Korea’s stability.
    • Long-standing U.S. allies in Asia include Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Taiwan, Singapore, and Thailand.
    • The Arab-Israeli conflict led to a general anti-Israel alignment among Arab countries for decades, but this changed when Egypt (1978) and Jordan (1994) made peace with Israel. In August 2020, the UAE also established formal ties with Israel.
    • Israeli-Palestinian relations have been stagnant since 2011.
    • Sectarian strife between Shias and Sunni has been a major division since 1979. Iran and Saudi Arabia, each representing each branch respectively, vie for influence in regional conflicts like the civil wars in Syria and Yemen.
    • The United States has maintained close relations with Egypt since 1978 and cooperates closely with Turkey (a NATO member), Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Morocco.
    • U.S.-Iranian relations have been strained for over 40 years since the 1979 revolution.
    • Iran, with its Shi’ite population, has close ties with Iraq’s new U.S.-backed government, dominated by Shi’ite religious parties.
    • Turkey, an increasingly Islamist Sunni state, is politically distant from both Iran and Saudi Arabia, with whom it has competing regional ambitions. Turkey also competes with Russia, despite having common enemies in the Kurds and ISIS.
    • The fluidity of alliances makes them unpredictable for scholars and policymakers.
    • Currently, international alignments, including military alliances and trade relationships, center on the United States. While independent-minded states like China and Russia counterbalance U.S. hegemony, there is little evidence of a formal rival power alignment emerging.
    • The Russian invasion has, if anything, unified the NATO alliance. China claims its relationship with Russia has no limits, and India remains a close trade partner with Russia.

    Strategy

    • Actors use strategies to achieve favorable outcomes in bargaining situations with others. States utilize their power capabilities to influence each other’s actions. Bargaining is an interactive process that requires considering the interests of other actors while pursuing one’s own goals.
    • Statecraft refers to the art of managing state affairs and navigating power politics among sovereign states. Power strategies involve planning and deploying power capabilities to achieve goals.
    • A key aspect of statecraft is selecting the right capabilities to develop, given limited resources, to maximize international influence. This requires foresight as capabilities may need to be developed years in advance and are often not interchangeable in the short term.
    • A central dilemma is deciding the size of standing military forces to maintain in peacetime—enough to prevent a quick defeat in war, but not so much as to strain the economy.
    • China's strategic actions align with the concept of rational power deployment, particularly in its efforts to prevent Taiwan's independence. China views Taiwan as part of its territory, a position supported by the UN and, officially, the U.S.
    • China has consistently threatened war if Taiwan declares independence, which has so far deterred such a declaration.
    • China uses various positive and negative leverages to counter Taiwanese ties with countries that recognize Taiwan. For example, in Panama, China has implicitly threatened to restrict access to Hong Kong or re-register ships in the Bahamas.
    • China has used two of its eleven UN Security Council vetoes to block peacekeeping forces in countries that recognized Taiwan. These vetoes show China’s willingness to play a spoiler role if its Taiwan interests are threatened. For example, when Macedonia recognized Taiwan in 1999, China vetoed a UN peacekeeping mission there during instability in Kosovo. Macedonia switched its diplomatic recognition to China in 2001.
    • When its Taiwan interests are secure, China cooperates on global issues. For instance, it did not veto the 1991 Gulf War UN resolution despite opposing the war. However, since 2019, China has joined Russia in vetoing resolutions on Syria and Venezuela.
    • The strategy of deterrence involves threatening punishment to prevent negative actions.
    • Advocates of deterrence believe conflicts are more likely to escalate into war when one party is weak.

    Building Military Capabilities

    • Building military capabilities can discourage potential aggressors from using military force
    • Compellence involves using the threat of force to force another actor to take a specific action.
    • Compellence is more difficult than deterrence, which seeks to prevent an actor from taking action.
    • Escalation is a strategy that uses a series of increasingly severe sanctions to compel compliance.
    • Escalation can be dangerous, as seen during the Cold War, where it was feared that conventional war could lead to nuclear war.
    • An arms race is a reciprocal process where states build up their military capabilities in response to each other, leading to a potentially dangerous escalation.
    • The US-Soviet nuclear arms race is an example of this, resulting in massive stockpiles of nuclear weapons on both sides.

    Rationality in International Relations

    • Most realists (and many non-realists) assume that states act rationally to advance their interests in international relations.
    • Rational actors are capable of identifying their interests, prioritizing them, and taking actions to advance those interests.
    • Many realists believe states act as unitary actors, meaning they function as a single entity capable of coherent decision-making.
    • The national interest is defined as the interests of the state itself, which can include the interests of government agencies, domestic groups, and the need to prevail in conflicts.
    • Rational actors perform cost-benefit analyses to weigh the costs and benefits of different actions.
    • States typically avoid wars they expect to lose, but this can be difficult to assess when political benefits are intangible.
    • Rational actors can miscalculate, especially when information is faulty, and human behavior and luck can be unpredictable.

    The Prisoner's Dilemma

    • Game theory is a branch of mathematics that analyzes bargaining outcomes.
    • It assumes that players will act rationally to maximize their payoffs by choosing the best move in response to other players' actions.
    • Zero-sum games are those in which one player's gain is equal to the other's losses, while non-zero-sum games allow for both players to gain (or lose).
    • The Prisoner's Dilemma is a game theory model that illustrates a collective goods problem.
    • In the Prisoner's Dilemma, rational players individually choose actions that lead to worse outcomes for everyone involved because they lack information about the other player's actions.
    • The Prisoner's Dilemma is often used to explain the challenges of cooperation in international relations, such as in arms races.
    • The game of Chicken also illustrates the challenges of decision-making in international relations, highlighting the risks involved in brinkmanship.

    Game Theory in International Relations

    • The Prisoner's Dilemma and Chicken are just two examples of how game theory can be applied to analyze international interactions.
    • Scholars began using game theory extensively in the 1950s and 1960s to understand nuclear war scenarios during the Cold War.
    • Game theory has become increasingly relevant in understanding international relations, particularly among realists who accept rationality assumptions.
    • Game theory emphasizes interdependent decisions, where each player's outcome depends on the actions of the other players.

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    This quiz explores the key concepts and historical development of realism as a theoretical framework in international relations. It also draws comparisons with idealism and highlights influential figures associated with these theories.

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