Real-Time Operating Systems (RTOS) Explained

A central pattern generator (CPG) is a neural network that produces rhythmic patterned outputs without rhythmic sensory or central input. It's like a built-in metronome for movements.

Motor control is hierarchically organized with higher centers controlling lower ones. This allows for complex movements to be broken down into simpler components.

The motor cortex, located in the frontal lobe, is responsible for planning, initiating, and executing voluntary movements. It works with other brain areas to coordinate complex actions.

The basal ganglia are a group of brain structures involved in motor control, motor learning, executive functions and behaviors.

The cerebellum coordinates voluntary movements such as posture, balance, coordination, and speech, resulting in smooth and balanced muscular activity.

Motor neurons are nerve cells that transmit signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles, causing them to contract. They are the final link in the chain of command for movement.

A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates. It's the smallest functional unit of muscle contraction.

Muscle spindles are sensory receptors within muscles that detect changes in muscle length. They play a crucial role in proprioception and the stretch reflex.

Golgi tendon organs are sensory receptors located within tendons that detect changes in muscle tension. They protect muscles from excessive force and contribute to proprioception.

Proprioception is the sense of body position and movement. It relies on sensory feedback from muscles, tendons, and joints to provide information about the body's location in space.

The stretch reflex is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. It helps maintain posture and protect muscles from injury.

The withdrawal reflex is a protective reflex that causes you to quickly move away from a painful stimulus. It involves sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a long-lasting strengthening of synapses between nerve cells. It's believed to be a cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory.

Motor learning is the process of acquiring and refining motor skills through practice and feedback resulting in relatively permanent changes in the capability for skilled movement.

The closed-loop control system uses feedback to adjust movements during execution. It's slower but more accurate, allowing for corrections based on sensory input.

The open-loop control system executes movements without feedback. It's faster but less accurate, relying on pre-programmed motor commands.

Skill acquisition typically involves three stages: cognitive (understanding the task), associative (refining the movement), and autonomous (automatic execution).

Motor adaptation is the ability to adjust movements in response to changes in the environment or the body. It allows us to maintain accuracy and coordination despite perturbations.

Feedback is information received during or after a movement that provides knowledge of results and knowledge of performance. It's essential for motor learning and adaptation.

Feedforward control is the use of prior experience to predict the sensory consequences of a movement and adjust motor commands accordingly. It's faster than feedback control but relies on accurate predictions.

Degrees of freedom refer to the number of independent parameters that define a system's configuration. The motor system must coordinate many degrees of freedom to produce a single movement.

Motor redundancy refers to the fact that there are often multiple ways to achieve the same motor goal. The motor system must choose among these options to optimize performance.

Internal models are neural representations of the body and the environment that are used to predict the sensory consequences of movements. They allow for feedforward control and motor adaptation.

Visuomotor adaptation is the process of adjusting movements to compensate for changes in the relationship between vision and motor control, such as when wearing prism goggles.

Haptic feedback is sensory information about touch, pressure, and texture that is used to guide movements. It's important for tasks that require fine motor control and object manipulation.

Bimanual coordination is the ability to coordinate the movements of both hands to perform a task. It requires integration of sensory and motor information across the two hemispheres of the brain.

Motor sequence learning is the process of learning to perform a series of movements in a specific order. It involves the formation of motor chunks and the automation of motor skills.

Transfer of learning is the ability to apply skills learned in one context to a new context. It depends on the similarity between the two contexts and the level of skill acquisition.

Cognitive motor interference is the phenomenon where performing a cognitive task simultaneously with a motor task impairs performance on one or both tasks. It reflects competition for limited attentional resources.

Motor imagery is the mental rehearsal of a movement without actually performing it. It can improve motor performance and facilitate motor learning.

Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. It allows the brain to adapt to changes in the environment, learn new skills, and recover from injury.

Constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) is a rehabilitation technique that involves restricting the use of the unaffected limb to force the use of the affected limb. It can improve motor function in individuals with stroke or other neurological conditions.

Virtual reality (VR) is a technology that creates immersive, interactive experiences for users. It can be used for motor rehabilitation, training, and assessment.

Brain-computer interface (BCI) is a technology that allows communication and control using brain activity. It can be used to restore motor function in individuals with paralysis or other severe motor impairments.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive brain stimulation technique that uses magnetic pulses to modulate neural activity. It can be used to study motor control and to treat motor disorders.

Electromyography (EMG) is a technique that measures the electrical activity of muscles. It can be used to assess muscle function, diagnose neuromuscular disorders, and study motor control.

Kinematics is the study of motion without regard to the forces that cause it. It can be used to quantify movement patterns and assess motor performance.

Kinetics is the study of the forces that cause motion. It can be used to understand the biomechanics of movement and to design interventions to improve motor performance.