Reading in Saladin - Chapter 17
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following organs is classified as a neuroendocrine organ?

  • Adrenal cortex
  • Posterior pituitary gland (correct)
  • Pineal gland
  • Anterior pituitary gland

    • Which of the following is an example of a secondary endocrine organ?

  • Kidney (correct)
  • Parathyroid gland
  • Adrenal medulla
  • Thyroid gland

    • A newly discovered hormone is found to be a derivative of cholesterol. Which characteristic would you expect this hormone to possess?

  • It travels freely in the bloodstream without a carrier protein.
  • It binds to receptors on the cell surface.
  • It is synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
  • It can easily diffuse across the plasma membrane. (correct)

    • Which of the following pairings correctly matches a type of hormone with its synthesis pathway?

    <p>Monoamine : starts with tyrosine or tryptophan (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scenarios describes a hormonal stimulus for hormone secretion?

    <p>The hypothalamus releases a hormone that causes the anterior pituitary to release a stimulating hormone. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the nervous system differ from the endocrine system in terms of the speed of its response to stimuli?

    <p>The nervous system reacts quickly, usually within 1-10 milliseconds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best illustrates neural stimulation of hormone secretion?

    <p>Preganglionic sympathetic fibers stimulating adrenal medulla cells to secrete epinephrine. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes paracrine signaling?

    <p>A cell releases a signal molecule that affects nearby cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key feature of autocrine signaling, as exemplified by hepcidin?

    <p>It affects both the cell that releases it and other cells of the same type. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Low blood calcium levels directly cause the parathyroid glands to release parathyroid hormone (PTH). What type of stimulus is this?

    <p>Humoral stimulus (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which class of hormones typically requires a carrier protein for transport in the bloodstream?

    <p>Steroid hormones (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the biochemical pathway of eicosanoid production, what is the role of phospholipase?

    <p>Converting phospholipids into arachidonic acid (AA). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which eicosanoids are associated with allergic reactions?

    <p>Leukotrienes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do the effects of the nervous system differ from those of the endocrine system in terms of specificity?

    <p>The nervous system usually has relatively local, specific effects, while the endocrine system sometimes has very general, widespread effects. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of direct communication between cells?

    <p>Gap junctions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of cyclooxygenase in the production of eicosanoids?

    <p>It produces prostacyclin, thromboxanes, and prostaglandins. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A medication that inhibits the release of Somatostatin would most likely lead to:

    <p>Increased levels of growth hormone (GH) and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a hormone produced by the hypothalamus that directly influences the adrenal cortex?

    <p>Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones is synthesized in the pituitary gland rather than just released by it?

    <p>Growth hormone (GH) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a patient has a tumor that prevents the production of prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH), which of the following would you expect?

    <p>Increased milk production (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A researcher is studying a cell culture and observes increased levels of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin (PRL). Which hormone would most likely cause this?

    <p>Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scenario exemplifies upregulation of target cell receptors?

    <p>Increased receptor density on target cells in response to chronically low hormone levels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of downregulation of target cell receptors?

    <p>A diminished response of the target cell to the hormone. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes a synergistic effect of hormone interaction?

    <p>Hormones working together to produce a greater effect than either could alone. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes a permissive effect in hormone interactions?

    <p>One hormone is required for another to exert its effects. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do antagonistic hormones interact?

    <p>They cause opposite effects on the same target. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a negative feedback loop controlling hormone secretion, what is the direct effect of the hormone on the gland that secretes it?

    <p>Inhibition of hormone secretion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the hypothalamus communicate with the anterior pituitary gland?

    <p>Through the hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a function regulated by the hypothalamus?

    <p>Red blood cell production. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why do carrier proteins protect circulating hydrophobic hormones?

    <p>To shield them from circulating enzymes that could degrade them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the specificity of a hormone receptor?

    <p>The unique binding site of the receptor for a specific hormone. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of reaching a saturation point in hormone-receptor binding?

    <p>The cellular response reaches its maximum, and further hormone binding has no additional effect. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A cell is exposed to a hormone that activates G proteins. What is the immediate next step if cAMP is used as a second messenger?

    <p>Activation of adenylate cyclase. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do protein kinases contribute to the variety of possible cellular responses after cAMP activation?

    <p>By phosphorylating different enzymes, leading to diverse metabolic effects. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the IP3/DAG second messenger system, what is the immediate consequence of phospholipase activation?

    <p>Hydrolysis of a membrane phospholipid into IP3 and DAG. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cellular response is most directly associated with increased intracellular calcium levels mediated by the IP3 second messenger system?

    <p>Smooth muscle contraction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A hormone activates a signaling pathway that leads to increased protein synthesis in the target cell. Where in the sequence of events would this effect be categorized?

    <p>A metabolic effect resulting from enzyme activation or deactivation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do hormones released by the pineal gland contribute to the regulation of physiological functions?

    <p>By synchronizing physiological functions with circadian rhythms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A patient is experiencing disrupted sleep patterns. Which hormone, produced by the pineal gland, is most likely affected?

    <p>Melatonin (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pancreatic islet cell type is responsible for producing a hormone that increases blood glucose levels?

    <p>Alpha cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A patient presents with polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia. Which endocrine disorder is most likely indicated by these symptoms?

    <p>Diabetes mellitus (unspecified) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the alarm reaction stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which of the following hormonal changes is most likely to occur?

    <p>Elevated levels of epinephrine (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following tissues or organs converts cholecalciferol to calcitriol?

    <p>Liver (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the primary difference between type 1 and type 2 diabetes regarding insulin production and response?

    <p>Type 1 is caused by a lack of insulin production, while type 2 involves insulin resistance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    An individual is under chronic stress. Which stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is characterized by the depletion of the body's resources, potentially leading to illness or exhaustion?

    <p>Stage of exhaustion (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Nervous System Characteristics

    Communicates with electrical impulses; specific target cells.

    Endocrine System Characteristics

    Communicates through hormones in the bloodstream; widespread effects.

    Paracrine Action

    Cell releases signals affecting nearby cells, e.g., histamine.

    Autocrine Action

    Cell signals itself, example: hepcidin regulating iron absorption.

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    Direct Communication

    Biochemical signal transmission between cells via gap junctions.

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    Eicosanoids Production Steps

    Phospholipid → phospholipase → AA → lipoxygenase/cyclooxygenase.

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    SAIDS

    Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

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    NSAIDS

    Steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.

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    Upregulation

    Process that increases receptor density, enhancing sensitivity and response.

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    Downregulation

    Process that decreases receptor density, reducing sensitivity and response.

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    Synergistic Hormone Interaction

    Hormones working together to produce a greater effect.

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    Permissive Hormone Interaction

    One hormone allows another hormone to act effectively.

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    Antagonistic Hormone Interaction

    One hormone causes an effect opposite to another hormone.

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    Feedback Loops

    Regulatory systems maintaining hormone levels through feedback mechanisms.

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    Hypothalamus

    Brain region regulating primitive functions and controlling the pituitary gland.

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    Pituitary Gland

    Gland that secretes hormones as directed by the hypothalamus, composed of two parts.

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    Steroid hormones

    Type of hydrophobic hormones that can pass through cell membranes.

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    Receptor specificity

    One type of receptor binds only to one specific type of hormone.

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    Receptor saturation

    Maximal response occurs when all receptors are occupied by hormone.

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    cAMP second messenger

    A signaling molecule that activates protein kinases after hormone-receptor binding.

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    IP3 and DAG

    Products of phospholipid breakdown that act as alternate second messengers.

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    Metabolic effects of second messengers

    Can activate or deactivate enzymes and change protein synthesis.

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    Hormone-receptor binding sequence

    First step in the transduction process where hormone binds to its receptor.

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    Carrier proteins for hormones

    Proteins that protect hormones in the bloodstream from degradation.

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    Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)

    Hormone that stimulates adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release from the adrenal cortex.

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    Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

    Stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary; targets ovaries and testes.

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    Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

    Promotes secretion of growth hormone (GH) affecting muscles, cartilage, bone, and fat.

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    Prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH)

    Inhibits the release of prolactin (PRL), which affects milk production in mammary glands.

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    Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)

    Stimulates secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and prolactin (PRL), targeting the thyroid glands.

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    Melatonin

    Hormone released by the pineal gland that promotes sleep and regulates circadian rhythms.

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    Thymopoietin

    Hormone from the thymus that aids in the development of T lymphocytes.

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    Alpha cells

    Pancreatic islet cells that secrete glucagon to raise blood glucose levels.

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    Beta cells

    Cells in the pancreatic islets that produce insulin to lower blood glucose levels.

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    Diabetes mellitus signs

    Symptoms include polyuria, polydipsia, and polyphagia.

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    Type 1 diabetes

    Condition where the pancreas fails to produce enough insulin due to beta cell loss.

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    General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

    The body's consistent response to stress in three stages: alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

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    Vitamin D synthesis in skin

    UV light triggers skin to synthesize cholecalciferol, a precursor of vitamin D.

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    Cortisol

    A glucocorticoid hormone elevated during stress as part of GAS.

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    Endocrine organs

    Glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, e.g., pituitary, thyroid, adrenal.

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    Neuroendocrine organs

    Organs that release hormones and have neural functions, e.g., hypothalamus, posterior pituitary.

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    Secondary endocrine organs

    Organs that produce hormones but are not primarily endocrine, e.g., skin, liver, heart.

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    Classes of hormones

    Include cholesterol derivatives, amino acid derivatives, peptides, and glycoproteins.

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    Steroid hormone synthesis

    Derived from cholesterol with a common 4-ring backbone, hydrophobic, needs carriers in blood.

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    Peptide hormone synthesis

    Produced from amino acids; modified in RER and Golgi, do not require carriers in blood.

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    Hormonal stimulation example

    Hypothalamus secretes hormones to stimulate the anterior pituitary and other glands.

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    Humoral stimulation example

    Changes in blood levels (e.g., low Ca2+) stimulate hormone release, like parathyroid hormone.

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    Study Notes

    Reading in Saladin - Chapter 17

    • Chapter Overview: Students are instructed to read the entire chapter, excluding Deeper Insight 17.3, and to ensure comprehension of the material using their own words, particularly regarding figures.

    Chapter 17 Objectives

    • Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems: Match characteristics of nervous and endocrine systems (Table 17.1). Nervous system uses electrical impulses/neurotransmitters, targeting specific cells, acting quickly & locally. Endocrine system uses hormones released into the bloodstream, with widespread and often slower effects.

    • Communication Types: Differentiate between paracrine, autocrine, and direct communication (gap junctions). Paracrine action involves signal molecules affecting nearby cells (e.g., histamine and vasodilation). Autocrine action involves a cell affecting itself (e.g., hepcidin inhibiting intestinal iron absorption). Gap junctions facilitate direct communication between cells via biochemical pathways.

    • Eicosanoid Production: Detail the steps in eicosanoid production, distinguishing between the actions of NSAIDs and SAIDs. Phospholipid to AA to eicosanoids. SAIDs are non-steroidal, while NSAIDs are steroidal.

    • Endocrine Organ Types: Distinguish between endocrine organs (anterior pituitary gland, hypothalamus, etc), neuroendocrine organs(posterior pituitary gland), and secondary endocrine organs (skin, liver, kidney, etc).

    • Hormone Classes: Identify examples from each class of hormone (cholesterol derivatives, amino acid derivatives, proteins and peptides). Hormones travel through blood, and some can pass through the phospholipid bilayer.

    • Hormone Synthesis: Explain how hormones from each class are synthesized.

    • Stimulation of Hormone Secretion: Distinguish, give examples of hormonal, neural, and humoral stimulation of hormone secretion. Hormonal: hypothalamus stimulating anterior pituitary. Neural: preganglionic fibers stimulating adrenal medulla. Humoral: low blood calcium levels stimulating parathyroid hormone (PTH) release.

    • Carrier Protein Needs: Identify hormones that require carrier proteins for transport in the blood (e.g., steroid hormones and thyroid hormones), and those that do not (e.g., monoamines and many peptides).

    • Target Cell Specificity & Saturation: Note that target cells are specific. Specificity means that a receptor only binds one type of hormone. Saturation occurs when all receptors are occupied, so no additional hormone will have a reaction.

    • Hormone Receptor Locations: Identify possible locations of hormone receptors and explain why membranes' characteristics determine location.

    • Transduction Process (cAMP): Detail the transduction process using cAMP as a second messenger.

    • Transduction Process (IP3/DAG): Outline the alternative transduction process involving IP3/DAG.

    • Hormone Receptor Regulation: Understand upregulation (increased sensitivity) and downregulation (decreased sensitivity) of target cell receptors.

    • Hormone Interactions: Describe examples of synergistic, permissive, and antagonistic interactions between hormones.

    • Hormonal Control Mechanisms: Detail the role of feedback loops in regulating hormonal control (e.g., hypothalamus -> anterior pituitary -> target cells). Negative feedback is often used.

    • Hypothalamus-Pituitary Axis: Note the relationship between hypothalamus and pituitary (posterior and anterior), including releasing and inhibiting hormones.

    • Hypothalamic Hormones: List and describe the 8 hormones produced by the hypothalamus, noting their target organs and functions.

    • Anterior Pituitary Hormones: Name the six hormones synthesized by the anterior pituitary, and the two additional released from the pituitary gland.

    • Posterior Pituitary Hormones: Detail the hormones released from the posterior pituitary, noting their stimuli for release, target tissues, and feedback mechanisms.

    • Pituitary Gland Regulation: Review the hypothalamus-anterior pituitary axis mechanisms.

    • Pineal & Thymus Glands: Briefly highlight specific hormones released by the pineal gland (melatonin) and the thymus (thymopoietin, thymosin, and thymulin).

    • Pancreatic Islets: Identify alpha and beta cells and their hormones (glucagon, insulin).

    • Diabetes Mellitus: Understand signs/symptoms and pathologies of type 1 and type 2 diabetes, noting the role of beta cells.

    • Stress Response (GAS): Detail the stages and components of the General Adaptation Syndrome (alarm, resistance, exhaustion).

    • Endocrine Functions of Tissues: Specific endocrine functions of skin, liver, kidneys, stomach, and small intestine, etc are outlined.

    • Lab Activity Answers: Answers to selected lab questions are provided in list format.

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    BIOL 2402 Chapter 17 Learning Objectives PDF

    Description

    This quiz focuses on Chapter 17 of Saladin, covering key differences between the nervous and endocrine systems. Students will explore communication types, including paracrine, autocrine, and direct communication methods. Ensure you understand the material and are able to explain it in your own words.

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