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In DSM-5, reading disorders are grouped with specific impairments and cannot co-occur with other disorders.
In DSM-5, reading disorders are grouped with specific impairments and cannot co-occur with other disorders.
False
Significant advances have been made in understanding the nature and causes of children's reading difficulties.
Significant advances have been made in understanding the nature and causes of children's reading difficulties.
True
The two commonly occurring reading disorders in children are dyslexia and arithmetic disorder.
The two commonly occurring reading disorders in children are dyslexia and arithmetic disorder.
False
Dyslexia refers to a difficulty in learning to decode, leading to poor appreciation of the spelling patterns of words and their pronunciation.
Dyslexia refers to a difficulty in learning to decode, leading to poor appreciation of the spelling patterns of words and their pronunciation.
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Children with dyslexia usually have no delays in learning to read.
Children with dyslexia usually have no delays in learning to read.
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Errors in reading and spelling among children with dyslexia include omissions, substitutions, distortions of words, and reversals of words or letters.
Errors in reading and spelling among children with dyslexia include omissions, substitutions, distortions of words, and reversals of words or letters.
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Children with motor learning disorder are typically good at organised games.
Children with motor learning disorder are typically good at organised games.
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Specific developmental disorder of motor function is synonymous with specific motor dyspraxia.
Specific developmental disorder of motor function is synonymous with specific motor dyspraxia.
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Children with Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder must meet the diagnostic criteria for ASD.
Children with Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder must meet the diagnostic criteria for ASD.
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One of the deficits required for a diagnosis of Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder is following rules for conversation, such as turn-taking.
One of the deficits required for a diagnosis of Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder is following rules for conversation, such as turn-taking.
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Special teaching may improve the confidence of children with a motor learning disorder.
Special teaching may improve the confidence of children with a motor learning disorder.
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IQ testing for children with a motor learning disorder usually shows poor verbal scores but good performance scores.
IQ testing for children with a motor learning disorder usually shows poor verbal scores but good performance scores.
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Speech and language therapy focusing on communication needs is typically provided for children with Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder.
Speech and language therapy focusing on communication needs is typically provided for children with Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder.
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Secondary emotional disorder can sometimes lead children with a motor learning disorder to be referred to a psychiatrist.
Secondary emotional disorder can sometimes lead children with a motor learning disorder to be referred to a psychiatrist.
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The DSM-5 uses the term dyslexia to describe specific learning disorders.
The DSM-5 uses the term dyslexia to describe specific learning disorders.
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Individuals with dyslexia generally find spelling difficulties more resistant to remediation than reading difficulties.
Individuals with dyslexia generally find spelling difficulties more resistant to remediation than reading difficulties.
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Reading comprehension impairment and dyslexia present the same challenges in reading.
Reading comprehension impairment and dyslexia present the same challenges in reading.
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Sensory impairments, such as problems with auditory processing, are common in children with dyslexia.
Sensory impairments, such as problems with auditory processing, are common in children with dyslexia.
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The predominant cognitive explanation for dyslexia is an impairment in mathematical processing.
The predominant cognitive explanation for dyslexia is an impairment in mathematical processing.
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Socially advantaged homes are more likely to have children with specific reading difficulties.
Socially advantaged homes are more likely to have children with specific reading difficulties.
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According to ICD-10, a speech sound disorder is termed as specific speech articulation disorder.
According to ICD-10, a speech sound disorder is termed as specific speech articulation disorder.
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Reading disorders have been linked predominantly to genetic factors, excluding environmental influences.
Reading disorders have been linked predominantly to genetic factors, excluding environmental influences.
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ICD-10 classifies stuttering under behavioral disorders.
ICD-10 classifies stuttering under behavioral disorders.
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Rapid automatized naming tests (RAN) involve the rapid decoding of numerical sequences.
Rapid automatized naming tests (RAN) involve the rapid decoding of numerical sequences.
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Language is primarily acquired through written forms of communication.
Language is primarily acquired through written forms of communication.
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Half of all children form words into simple sentences by 30 months of age.
Half of all children form words into simple sentences by 30 months of age.
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97% of children use words with meanings by 21 months of age.
97% of children use words with meanings by 21 months of age.
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Children with specific speech articulation disorder usually have normal language skills.
Children with specific speech articulation disorder usually have normal language skills.
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The gene FOXP2 has been associated with some cases of severe language disorder.
The gene FOXP2 has been associated with some cases of severe language disorder.
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Social deprivation can lead to severe speech disorders in most children.
Social deprivation can lead to severe speech disorders in most children.
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ICD-10 has a category for 'Social (pragmatic) communication disorder'.
ICD-10 has a category for 'Social (pragmatic) communication disorder'.
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Specific language impairment has high levels of comorbidity with ADHD.
Specific language impairment has high levels of comorbidity with ADHD.
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Errors in making speech sounds are considered normal in children up to the age of 7 years.
Errors in making speech sounds are considered normal in children up to the age of 7 years.
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ICD-10 includes a category for 'Acquired aphasia with epilepsy'.
ICD-10 includes a category for 'Acquired aphasia with epilepsy'.
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Rare mutations in the FOXP2 gene can result in problems with sequencing sounds.
Rare mutations in the FOXP2 gene can result in problems with sequencing sounds.
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Right prefrontal brain mechanisms are critical for reading improvement in dyslexia.
Right prefrontal brain mechanisms are critical for reading improvement in dyslexia.
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Most children with reading disorders show structural brain abnormalities.
Most children with reading disorders show structural brain abnormalities.
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Early identification of reading disorders is important.
Early identification of reading disorders is important.
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The main treatment for reading disorders involves medication.
The main treatment for reading disorders involves medication.
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It is common for children with cerebral palsy and epilepsy to have an increased rate of reading disorder.
It is common for children with cerebral palsy and epilepsy to have an increased rate of reading disorder.
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Reading disorders are often associated with abnormalities in early neurodevelopment.
Reading disorders are often associated with abnormalities in early neurodevelopment.
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Parental teaching of print concepts has been associated with worse reading outcomes.
Parental teaching of print concepts has been associated with worse reading outcomes.
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There is less evidence for the efficacy of oral reading programs in addressing fluency issues once decoding skills are mastered.
There is less evidence for the efficacy of oral reading programs in addressing fluency issues once decoding skills are mastered.
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The incidence of mathematics disorder is between 1.3% and 6%.
The incidence of mathematics disorder is between 1.3% and 6%.
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Language disorders involve persistent difficulties in both the acquisition and use of language.
Language disorders involve persistent difficulties in both the acquisition and use of language.
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Cluttering is classified in DSM-5 among behavioral disorders of childhood.
Cluttering is classified in DSM-5 among behavioral disorders of childhood.
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Disorders of vocabulary often result in children relying on specific words rather than non-specific words.
Disorders of vocabulary often result in children relying on specific words rather than non-specific words.
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The absence of single words by age 2 and delayed use of word combinations from 2 ½ to 4 years signifies abnormal language development.
The absence of single words by age 2 and delayed use of word combinations from 2 ½ to 4 years signifies abnormal language development.
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About 70% of children who meet the DSM-5 criteria for language disorder develop normal speech by adulthood.
About 70% of children who meet the DSM-5 criteria for language disorder develop normal speech by adulthood.
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Specialist speech and language therapists and special education provisions are involved in the treatment of language disorders.
Specialist speech and language therapists and special education provisions are involved in the treatment of language disorders.
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Acquired epileptic aphasia typically involves a loss of both receptive and expressive language while maintaining general intelligence.
Acquired epileptic aphasia typically involves a loss of both receptive and expressive language while maintaining general intelligence.
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The prevalence of language disorders is consistently estimated to be around 10% of children.
The prevalence of language disorders is consistently estimated to be around 10% of children.
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One crucial aspect of assessing speech and language disorders is to rule out conditions such as cerebral palsy and deafness.
One crucial aspect of assessing speech and language disorders is to rule out conditions such as cerebral palsy and deafness.
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Mutations in the GRIN2A gene are responsible for approximately 50% of cases of acquired epileptic aphasia.
Mutations in the GRIN2A gene are responsible for approximately 50% of cases of acquired epileptic aphasia.
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Study Notes
Specific Learning Disorders
- Specific learning disorders can be associated with emotional problems, but development in other areas is not affected.
- The DSM-5 uses the term specific learning disorder (SLD) to describe a number of different disorders of language and not the term dyslexia.
Reading Disorder
- Reading disorder is grouped with other learning disorders in DSM-5.
- There are two different, but commonly occurring, reading disorders in children: dyslexia and reading comprehension disorder.
- Dyslexia refers to a difficulty in learning to decode, leading to poor appreciation of the spelling patterns of words and their pronunciation.
- Errors in reading and spelling include omissions, substitutions, or distortions of words, slow reading, long hesitations, and reversals of words or letters.
- Reading comprehension disorder: children with this disorder show a contrasting pattern, where they are able to read aloud accurately but have difficulty understanding what they have read.
Dyslexia
- Estimates of the presence of dyslexia in English-speaking countries range from 3% to 10% in school-aged children.
- Typically, the spelling difficulties in people with dyslexia are more resistant to remediation than their reading difficulties.
- People with specific reading difficulties are more often male and are more likely to have minor neurological abnormalities, and to come from socially disadvantaged homes.
- Sensory impairments are common; for example, some auditory processing tasks, especially frequency discrimination, present in up to 30-40% of children with dyslexia.
Aetiology of Reading Disorders
- Reading is a complex skill that depends on more than one psychological process and is learned in several stages.
- The aetiology of reading disorders is varied and depends on genetic and environmental factors.
- The predominant cognitive explanation of dyslexia is that it arises from a phonological deficit - a problem in processing the speech sounds of spoken words.
- Another theory focuses on naming speed measured by rapid automatized naming tests (RAN).
Disorders of Communication, Speech, and Language
- Communication is the transmission of information using a common signalling system, and language is a form of communication humans use to assist in communication.
- Language is a complex formal system that makes use of sounds and words in rule-governed ways to convey an infinite number of meanings.
- The process by which language is acquired is complex and is still not fully understood.
- Specific language impairment appears to be a relatively common disorder.
- Estimates show around 7% in kindergarten children.
- There are high levels of comorbidity with reading disorders, motor coordination, general learning disorders, and ADHD.
Causes of Speech and Language Disorder
- The causes of language impairment remain poorly understood.
- Children appear to have pronounced problems in word learning (vocabulary knowledge), grammar learning, and phonology.
- A minority might have another primary disorder, such as intellectual disability, hearing problems, cerebral palsy, and ASD.
- Social deprivation can cause mild delays in speaking or add to the effects of the other causes.
- There is a genetic contribution, with mutations in a gene called FOXP2 causing some cases of severe language disorder.
Classification
- The classification differs in some ways between ICD-10 and DSM-5.
- ICD-10 uses the title 'specific developmental disorders of speech and language', whereas DSM-5 has the wider title 'communication disorders'.
- Three disorders appear in both classifications, although with some differences in nomenclature.
Speech Sound Disorder (Specific Speech Articulation Disorder)
- In this condition, accuracy in the use of speech sounds is below the level appropriate for the child's mental age, but language skills are normal.
- Errors in making speech sounds (phonemes) are normal in children up to the age of about 4 years, but by the age of 7 years most speech sounds should be normal.
- By age 12 years nearly all speech sounds should be made normally.
- Children with specific speech articulation disorder make errors of articulation so severe that it is difficult for others to understand their speech.
Language Disorder
- Language disorders are persistent difficulties in the acquisition and use of language across modalities.
- It can include issues with vocabulary, sentence structure, and discourse.
- The prevalence of language disorder depends on the method of assessment, but a rate of 1-5% of children has been proposed.
- About 50% of children who meet the DSM-5 criteria develop normal speech by adulthood, while the rest have persistent difficulties.
Acquired Epileptic Aphasia (Landau-Kleffner Syndrome)
- This is a rare disorder where a child who previously developed normally loses both receptive and expressive language, but maintains general intelligence.
- About 20% of cases are caused by mutations in the GRIN2A gene, which codes for a subunit of the NMDA glutamate receptor.
- The prognosis is variable; two-thirds of children experience a receptive language deficit.
Mathematics Disorder (Specific Arithmetic Disorder)
- The DSM-5 defines this disorder as a specific learning disorder which is also known as dyscalculia.
- The ICD-10 defines this disorder as specific arithmetic disorder.
- This disorder is typically defined as a difficulty in learning mathematics that is out of line with other aspects of a child's development.
- The difficulties are often evident from the time a child first attempts to learn to count.
- This may lead to secondary emotional difficulties when the child attends school.
Motor Learning Disorder
- Some children have delayed motor development, which results in clumsiness in school work or play.
- In ICD-10, this condition is called specific developmental disorder of motor function.
- It is also known as clumsy child syndrome or specific motor dyspraxia.
- The child can carry out all normal movements, but coordination is poor.
Social (Pragmatic) Communication Disorder
- The introduction of this category of disorder in DSM-5 is predominantly as a result of changes to the diagnostic criteria for ASD.
- This category is used for children with persistent difficulties in the social use of verbal and non-verbal communication.
- Four key areas of deficit need to be present for a diagnosis:
- Using communication for social purposes (greetings);
- Changing communication to match context or needs of the listener;
- Following rules for conversation (turn-taking);
- Understanding what is not explicitly stated and non-literal or ambiguous meanings.
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Description
Learn about reading disorder, its grouping with other learning disorders in DSM-5, and the advances made in understanding its nature and causes. Explore how it co-occurs with other communication impairments and disorders.
