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• The purpose of the lectures is to cover History, methodology, and study tips

Introspectionism

• Focused on looking inward to examine mental processes
• Structuralists like Wundt and Titchener were proponents
• Problems with this approach:
  • Difficult to verify because private thoughts aren't observable
  • Different perspectives lead to inconsistent results
  • Focused on the end product rather than the process itself

Behaviorism

• Psychology should focus only on observable behavior
• Focuses on stimulus and response and conditioning
• Pavlov, Watson (denied consciousness), and Skinner were key figures
• Studies involve stimuli, responses, reinforcements in mazes, generally rats
• Ignored the mind as a "black box"
• Problems with this approach:
  • Complex behaviors, ex. language, cannot be explained (Chomsky critique)
  • Science should not be limited to the directly observable

Cognitivism

• Key concept involves inferring what's happening inside the mind
• The mind operates like a computer, processing, outputting information

Variables & Graphs

• Dependent Variable (DV): The variable that is measured, e.g., reaction time, accuracy, brain activity
• Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated, e.g., number of items memorized, alcohol intake
• Graph Interpretation:
  • Main Effects: When the IV affects the DV; shown by parallel lines on a graph
  • Interactions: Effect of one IV depends on another, shown by non-parallel lines on a graph

Mental Chronometry & Donders' Subtraction Method

• Donders (1868) studied mental process timing
• Information Processing Stages:
  • Detection Task: Press a button when light appears, an (S → Detection → R) process
  • Choice Task: Press left for red, right for green, an (S → Detection → Decision → R) process
• Subtraction Method calculates decision time by using choice task and detection task
  • (S → Detection → Decision → R) − (S → Detection → R) = Decision Time
• Problems include:
  • Pure Insertion: New stages alter existing ones
  • Additivity: Assumes stages are separate, not parallel
  • Knowing the Stages: Assumes correct identification of mental stages

Scientific Reasoning in Cognitive Psychology

• Problem with Confirming Evidence: Weak as a scientific method
• Key Approach: Eliminate alternative explanations

Huppert & Piercy Amnesia Experiments

• Tested memory impairments based on encoding, trouble learning new info, storage, trouble retaining info, and retrieval, trouble accessing stored info
• Findings: Ruled out storage issues as a factor for amnesia

Effective Studying Techniques

• Two rehearsal Types
  • Elaborative Rehearsal: Deep processing focused and meaning-based
  • Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition being shallow processing
• Spacing Effect:
  • Massed Practice: Cramming which is ineffective
  • Distributed Practice: Spreading study sessions over time for better retention
• Testing Effect: Self-testing improves retention
• Sleep & Consolidation enhances memory consolidation

Sternberg 1 Reading

• Dialectic: Advancing knowledge by resolving opposing ideas with thesis vs. antithesis → synthesis
• Importance in Psychology helps reconcile differing theories to refine understanding of mental processes

1. Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener)

• Breaks down mental processes into basic elements, sensations, images, feelings
• Method: Introspection
• Criticism: Too subjective, lacks practical application

2. Functionalism (James, Dewey)

• Focuses on the purpose of mental processes in adaptation
• Criticism: Accused of lacking rigorous structure

3. Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner)

• Focuses on observable behavior (stimulus → response)
• Method: Conditioning- classical & operant
• Criticism: Ignores internal mental states

4. Cognitivism (Neisser, Piaget)

• Studies internal mental processes like perception, memory, and problem-solving
• View of Mind: Is an information processor, like a computer
• Criticism: Behaviorists argued it lacks empirical grounding due to focus on "invisible" processes

Critiques & Dialectic's Role

• Structuralism vs. Functionalism: Structuralists criticized functionalists for lacking structure, functionalists found structuralism impractical
• Behaviorism vs. Cognitivism: Behaviorists rejected cognitivism as unscientific and cognitivists argued behaviorismen ignored crucial mental functions
• Dialectic's Challenge: Attempts to integrate perspectives but struggles to merge fundamentally different paradigms

Bjork & Bjork Reading for Learning vs. Performance

• Learning entails long-term retention & transfer
• Performance entails immediate recall, may not reflect actual learning
• Key Insight: Good performance in practice doesn't guarantee effective learning

Desirable Difficulties

• Consists of strategies that make learning harder but improve long-term retention
• Examples:
  • Spaced practice instead of cramming
  • Interleaving instead of blocking
  • Retrieval practice, testing instead of passive review

Effective Study Strategies

• Varie Practice Conditions, changing study environments and contexts improves knowledge transfer
• Prevents dependence on specific conditions, avoiding context-dependent learning

Spaced vs. Massed Practice

• Spaced: Studying over time enhances retention
• Massed: Cramming feels productive but leads to fast forgetting

Interleaving vs. Blocking

• Blocking entails practicing one topic repeatedly, feels easier, but leads to shallow learning
• Interleaving entails mixing topics/skills, forces comparisons, strengthens learning
• Study on Artistic Styles: Participants who interleaved art styles learned to recognize new works better than those who studied one at a time.

Memory & Testing Effects

• Generation Effect occurs when actively generating answers improves retention
• Repeated Testing vs. Repeated Study
  • Testing strengthens memory via retrieval
  • Studying repeated review builds familiarity but less retention
• Metacognitive Benefits of Testing helps learners assess what they know and where they need improvement and promotes active retrieval, reinforcing learning
• Familiarity Can Be Misleading occurs when Rereading and passive review create illusion of understanding with resulting overconfidence in learning without deep comprehension

Lecture 2: Perception

• Perception transforms sensory information from the environment into experiences of objects, events, and sensations
• Stages of Perception:
  • Distal Stimulus is the actual object in the environment
  • Proximal Stimulus is the pattern of stimulation on sensory receptors
  • Perception/Percept is the brain's interpretation of sensory input or what you "see"
• Perceptual Correspondence:
  • Lack of Correspondence: Perception does not match reality, e.g., visual illusions
  • Paradoxical Correspondence: The proximal stimulus does not match the distal stimulus, perception does, e.g., size constancy, moving objects
• Perceptual Constancies Maintaining a stable perception despite changes in stimulus
  • Size Constancy where Objects appear the same size despite distance changes
  • Color Constancy where Perceived color remains stable despite lighting changes
  • Shape Constancy where Objects are perceived as having a constant shape despite viewing angle changes
• Theoretical Approaches to Perception:
  • Direct Perception which is the Gibsonian View
    • The environment provides sufficient cues for perception
    • The brain is hardwired to process these cues without additional knowledge
    • Perception is largely bottom-up, stimulus-driven
  • Constructivist Theory, Helmholtzian View
    • Perception combines sensory data with prior knowledge and expectations
    • Sensory information is often ambiguous, requiring top-down processing, knowledge-driven
    • Uses both bottom-up and top-down processes
• Bottom-Up vs. Top-Down Processing:
  • Bottom-Up Processing is driven by raw sensory input, e.g., direct perception
  • Top-Down Processing is influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, and context, e.g., constructivism
• Depth Perception includes the paradox and cues:
  • Perceiving a 3D world from a 2D retinal image as the brain reconstructs depth using monocular and binocular cues
• Monocular Cues from One Eye
  • Linear Perspective where Parallel lines converge in the distance
  • Shape Cues where Objects change shape with perspective
  • Relative Size where Smaller objects appear farther away
  • Interposition where Overlapping objects create depth cues
  • Shadows & Lighting help determine depth and shape
  • Accommodation entails the Lens changing shape for focus, stretching for far objects and narrowing for close objects
• Binocular Cues from Both Eyes include
  • Retinal Disparity where Difference between images in each eye with larger disparity for closer objects
  • Convergence where Eyes turn inward for close objects, outward for distant ones
• Sacks Reading: Includes Dr. P & Visual Agnosia and Dr. P's Deficits
  • Visual Agnosia: Unable to recognize objects and faces visually
  • Face Recognition Failure where Mistook his wife for a hat, prosopagnosia
  • Partial Processing where one Could describe shapes/colors but not integrate them into meaningful objects
  • Navigation Issues where one Relied on touch and routine instead of visual cues
• Dr. P's Preserved Abilities include
  • Musical Skills of Singing and playing music that remained intact
  • Cognitive Abilities with Language, reasoning, and problem-solving were unaffected
  • Compensatory Strategies where Used other senses of touch, sound to navigate his world
• Agnosia includes a neurological disorder where sensory information is intact but recognition is impaired
• Types of Visual Agnosia
  • Apperceptive Agnosia where Difficulty perceiving shapes and integrating visual elements
  • Associative Agnosia where one Can perceive objects but cannot assign meaning
  • Prosopagnosia is the Inability to recognize faces
• Neural Basis: Dorsal vs. Ventral Streams is useful in the
  • Dorsal Stream, the "Where” Pathway, Parietal Lobe that Processes spatial location & movement and intact in Dr. P who could navigate his environment
  • Ventral Stream, the “What” Pathway, Temporal Lobe that Recognizes objects and assigns meaning and impaired in Dr. P, leading to agnosia

Visual System Lecture

• Retina & Photoreceptors
  • Light first impacts photoreceptors like rods & cones
  • There is no photoreceptors in the optic disc where the optic nerve exits
• Rods & Cones detect brightness and are more sensitive in low light and concentrated in the fovea
  • Responsible for color vision- blue, green, red
  • Colorblindness results from missing or defective cone types
• Ganglion Cells gather input from photoreceptors and send signals to the brain via the optic nerve
  • Responses depend on center-surround receptive fields, excitation/inhibition
• Neuron Structure with dendrites receiving signals, soma cell body processing input, and axon sending signals

Action Potential & Transmission

• Resting Potential is the baseline charge difference across axon
• Threshold Minimum potential needed for firing
• All-or-None Principle where Neuron either fires fully or not at all
• Propagation where Action potential travels down axon via ion exchange
• Refractory Period is a brief pause before neuron can fire again
• Neurotransmitters & Synapses consist of Electrochemical Transmission with-
  • Electrical happening within neuron involving action potential and chemical occurring between neurons where Neurotransmitters cross synapses with Summation as combined excitatory & inhibitory signals determine firing
• Receptive Field is the area of external space activating a particular neuron where Ganglion cells respond to light stimuli in their receptive fields
• Center-Surround Organization enhances contrast and edge detection and functions with
  • Point detection
  • Edge detection
  • Light-on-dark or dark-on-light perception
• M-Cells, Magnocellular, have Large receptive field with transient response which leads to Motion & Location
• P-Cells, Parvocellular, have Small receptive field with sustained response leading to Color, Form, Patterns
• Cerebral Cortex & Visual Pathways occur in the
  • The Primary Visual Cortex, V1, Processing uses Simple Cells to Detect bars of light at specific orientations, Complex Cells to Detect movement & edges and Hypercomplex Cells to Respond to specific shapes especially corners and gaps
• Two Visual Pathways:
  • Dorsal Stream, Parietal Lobe being the "Where" Pathway, Processes spatial location & motion
  • Ventral Stream, Temporal Lobe being the "What" Pathway for one Processes object recognition & meaning

Brain Imaging & Activity Measurement

• Recording the Single/Multi-unit of Individual neuron activity allows High spatial & temporal precision though it is invasive
• Lesions that Damage effects allow Causal inference, but limited to patients
• fMRI/PET studies Blood flow & metabolism allowing Good spatial but poor temporal resolution
• EEG/ERP/MEG studies Electrical activity providing High temporal but poor spatial resolution
• Brain Stimulation (TMS, tDCS) that Disrupts or influences activity is a Non-invasive causal method

Kohler Experiment and Population Coding

• Object vs. Spatial Processing performed as a PET Study where the Spatial Task ("Where") leads to Parietal Lobe, Dorsal, Activation versus the Object Task ("What") activating the Temporal Lobe, Ventral
• The study of Population Coding states Recognition doesn't rely on a single "grandmother cell" but Instead, patterns of activity across many neurons encode objects

Perception

• The constructive perception theory of McCloskey and A.H. states that:
  • A.H. had difficulty localizing objects visually but could do so by touch or sound, Indicating visual spatial localization is separate from other sensory systems that helps differ Identification vs. Localization A.H. could identify objects but mislocated them, e.g., mirror-image errors and Highlights separation of object recognition and spatial processing,
• Perception is indirect and constructed from sensory inputs and Errors in localization suggest that brain separately processes spatial and identity information
• Temporal/Ventral, "What", Pathway is Intact allowing object recognition while a Parietal/Dorsal, "Where" Pathway being Impaired leads to mislocalization

Pattern Recognition

• Lecture 4: Pattern recognition occurs in a bottom-up fashion during the Representation Process
  • Distal Stimulus entails Real-world object then the Proximal Stimulus entails Sensory input on receptors, and the Percept involves the Brain's interpretation of object
• Bottom-Up Pattern Recognition:
  • Matching or Primal Access happens during first-time recognition when a percept aligns with stored memory showing Shape Constancy that Objects are recognized regardless of viewing angle, size, or lighting
• Template Theory states that Recognition occurs by matching input to stored templates though the Problems with this concept
  • Transformations can't account for variations, e.g., different fonts of letter "E" or that
  • Obstructed Objects can't recognize objects when parts are missing
• Feature Theory states the visual system breaks objects into primitive features that match as recognition with the following Evidence
  • Physiology with Neurons in the temporal lobe responding to visual features
  • Stabilized Retinal Images when Constant retinal stimulation leads to desensitization of certain features
  • Visual Search occurs when Recognizing an object is harder when surrounded by similar features, e.g., finding "T" among "L"s versus the
  • Pandemonium Model, a hierarchy of demons detecting features leads to recognition
• Problems with the Feature Theory include the
  • Same Features and Different Objects where (e.g., “P”, “d”, “b” all share same features but are different letters) combined with the
  • Feature Arrangement Matters as Feature theory cannot explain how different configurations can produce different objects
• Recognition-by-Components, RBC, Theory states that Objects are recognized by geons, geometric ions, — 36 elementary 3D shapes with the
• The process entails non-accidental properties retaining features that remain identifiable from most viewpoints, e.g., edges of a brick
• and matching is where recognizing the matching objects entails the
  1. Detecting elementary features and edges
  2. Identifying non-accidental properties
  3. Determining geons and their arrangement
  4. Matching with stored object memory
  • Partial/Degraded Objects are difficult to recognize if non-accidental properties are removed so Recognizing Occluded Objects remains easier when objects are identifiable even if partially blocked Object Complexity which entails More geons allowing faster recognition showing Unusual Orientations that uncommon viewpoints make recognition harder

Problems with RBC

• Similar Objects where Can't easily distinguish subtle differences, e.g., green apple vs. green pear, Beyoncé vs. Rihanna
• Lack of Brain Evidence where there is No geon-specific brain regions identified or that
• Context Effects assumptions based from surrounding context impact recognition, which RBC doesn't fully explain though
• Handles transformations, e.g., different fonts of "E", Explains feature relationships, e.g., how “P”, “d”, and “b” are distinct, and
• Accounts for novel object recognition which allows making sense of nonsense objects

Lecture 5 pattern recognition- top-down

• Top-Down vs. Bottom-Up Processing
  • Bottom-Up Processing is when sensory input is processed from lower-level brain areas, vision, audition, to higher-level cognition
  • Top-Down Processing states that Higher cognition, expectations, memory, and decision-making, influences perception Three Types of Top-Down Processing include Bias, Context, & Interactive:
  • Expectation with bias where Perception is influenced by prior knowledge, e.g., seeing a tumor in an x-ray based on patient history
  • Context Effects where Surrounding environment shapes perception, e.g., recognizing objects in appropriate settings with Interactive Activation includes the statement that higher and lower levels of processing interact, e.g., words influencing letter recognition
• Signal Detection Theory, SDT, states the Signal refers to The stimulus you trying to detect within Background stimuli that may interfere with detection called Noise where Sensitivity determines The ability to distinguish signal from noise. Factors to consider include:
  • Sensitivity that Improves with clearer signals and better sensory ability and the
  • Bias tendency to favor one response over another based on expectations or payoffs-
• Signal Detection Matrix includes signal detection matrix where measuring - Accuracy using the equation % Hits + % Correct Rejections and accounting for Bias & Payoffs where when More pay for hits → entails a Yes bias , more false alarms
• Perceptual is influenced by surrounding context creating Subjective Contours where a shape (e.g., triangles) is perceived though not actually there
• Letter Recognition explains when Identical stimuli, e.g., “B” vs. “13”, are interpreted differently based on surrounding letters/numbers and even
• Ojects can have Objects Out of Context that make Objects harder to recognize when they appear in an unusual setting, e.g., a fire hydrant in a kitchen
• Word & Pseudoword Superiority Effects state using,

The Word Superiority Effect as Letters become easier to recognize when part of a word than when alone or in isolation, and

where Context helps narrow down options, increasing accuracy while the Pseudoword Superiority Effect explains how Recognizing letters easier when made using pronounceable non-words, e.g., "zord", with results that Shows top-down influence through context

• Interactive Activation Model, as explained in the McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981 study, Explains word superiority effect using top-down & bottom-up processing through levels of processing including Features of Word Superiority
  • Feature Level recognizing individual letter features, the Letter Level that activates by feature combinations and the Word Level activated by recognized letters, then provides top-down reinforcement
• This model used Connections in the following ways:
  • Excitatory , → which Reinforces recognition- , e.g., "WORK" boosts activation of "O" as a valid letter versus
  • Using Inhibitory suppresses conflicting interpretations -, e.g., discouraging "Q" in "WORK"
• Parallel Processing in the Brain that uses both
  • Dorsal, "Where", & Ventral, “What”, Streams in order to use both Bottom-up, sensory input, and top-down,context/expectations, , processing involving interactive activation which allows higher-level understanding to shape the lower-level perception

Lecture 6: Attention

• Selective or Focused Attention entailsActively focusing on relevant information while ignoring distractions, e.g., finding a friend in a crowd, detecting a tumor on an x-ray

• Divided Attention or Multitasking involves Splitting attention between multiple tasks, e.g., talking while driving—attention is not fully on the road

• Stroop Task assessing the ability to override automatic processing, e.g., reading color words versus naming ink color

• Cocktail Party Problem entails Filtering out background noise while focusing on one conversation

• Dichotic Listening includes listening to 2 different sentences in the left and right ear but repeating sentence in specified ear

• Findings suggest Selection is based on physical characteristics, location/pitch, and unattended messages ignored except key bits like the person's name

• There have three models for Early to Late Selection: -Broadbent's Early Filter that states info-detection-filter happens so that only select info reaches awareness -Triesman's Attenuation states that info-detection-weakened info reaches the consouness

• Evidence for galvanic skin response shows that even GSR in processing occurs

• Nave perception also shows info is stored

• Overt vision means directly viewing the subject of attention. Cover vision states focused shift attention

• Valid cue: a fast response means we pay attention correctly whereas a slowing inattention means we've missed the cue

• Conclsuion says that atetnion works like a spotlight enhancing the most important features

Lecture 7: The Two Types of Visual Imagery

• Propositional Visual Imagery is Language-Like
• Information is stored as abstract, language-like propositions (e.g. ON(GLOBE, DESK)) with two characteristics:
• Not image-based
• Is flexible to represent anything
• Depictive Visual Imagery is Analog, or Image-Like
• It's where the idea of mental representations resemble pictures with spatial structure arise, with two characteristics:
• Having object mapping
• Allowing rotation

However, flawed thought known as Infinite Regress poses A “little man” inside your sees the image, causing this imagery concept to create infinite loops.

Thus, we look to Evidence for Depictive Codes to help this concept such as when:

Tasks that rely on the same mental system creates Interference Effects with example,

• Visual imagery tasks that interfere with visual perception tasks in that they
• Longer distances take more time to scan mentally, therefore
• Mental images suggest they preserve spatial relationships

Still further debate occurs in its studies when some Counterargument stating that:

• Participants may behave as expected (biasing results results), although
• Similar effects occur even when the subject doesn't even know

Next aspect to consider is with Image Zooming, when:

• Larger mental images cause Faster responses when questions about details
• Smaller mental images → entail Slower due to need to “zoom in”

• More rotation causes longer response times, suggesting transformation is continuous
• Intermediate Rotations entails that the if a letter is shown at mid-mental rotation, recognition is faster if orientation matches

Differences Between Imagery & Perception:

• Perception has precise metric properties ,distances,size, etc (e.g., exact distances, size relationships
• Imagery lacks a metric making it harder to compare sizes

Part-Whole Relationships in action is when:

• the Mind is prompted about a star, and even though their minds are supposed to consider a parallelogram, the
• part is not seen, and therefore minds fall to consider it

Ambigious Pictures where when

• recalling animal figures such an ambiguous figure , duck or rabbit, people cannot reinterpret its properties after the animal image is there
• This suggest how mental images aren't flexible enough, and mental images are fixed once formed

Compromise Theory states the following conditions:

1. Long-term storage is propositional (abstract representation)
2. Mental imagery generates propositional codes into depictive images
3. Depictive Images allow operations like scaling and zooming in but are dependent of the initial depositional coding

Brain Evidence for Mental Imagery:

• It take long for the brain to construct and build sequentially a complex image
• People mentally draw letters in order with the same process they would on paper, due to shared brain activity

Functional Imagery is a type of mental imagery, where:

• During mental imagery, the visual cortex activates more than when imagining
• Data from mental imagery shows that it activates the same visual cortex used in performing the process

TMS, Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, disrupts visual cortex use in imagery

• Example: Even thought the brain can perform visual imagery even with damage to motor cordex, TMS disrupts activity
• Mental images are built sequentially, like a drawing
• Thinking about an action activates the portion of your brain that does that action

Lecture 8:

Extraordinary Visual Memory

• The conductor called Toscanini could reportedly memorize over 250 symphonies
• An experiment was conducted to find that subjects could recognize over 98% of pics shown to them
• People could recognize over 700k images vs 100k

When is memory poor?

• Memory is poor when focus is on unimportant details
• When there is a lack of meaning and the foils are similar

What improves attention?

-Meaningfullness improves memory

Ricer code hypothesis

• Incorrect
• Images will provide better memory because of detail
• Simple images showed to provide no difference to complex

Dual code hypothesis

• Has two types of mental codes:
• Verbal codes- symbolic
• Novverbal codes- analogy
• Supports mental codes by stating that;
• People memorize concrete words like apple better than abstract ones (love0
• Abstract words have poor encoding

Talman's mage

• Rats that are learning spatial layouts instead of memorizing sequences
• rats showing indication of cognitive amps with short cuts Distortions in Cognitve Maps (Heuristics) Heuristic, Description, Example
• Right-Angle Bias where Intersections are remembered at 90 angles producing an example with non square roads recalled as square
• Symmetry where Shapes are remembered as More Symmetry than Reality creating an example of rivers that appear straighter than they are Rotation remembers Tilted features as More Vertical or Horizontal creating an example of U.S. where coastline straightened. Alignment where Locations are remembered as More Alignment than it is and the example of Europe & U.S. assuming to be on same latitude as Canada which is above the is.

Knowldge representation entails: Declarative knowledge of known facts and events Procedural knowledge of problem solving

Dual code theory is: Images use verbal and visual representation whereas Analog functions closer to pictures. Verbal funciton as abstract descriptions

Theories on imagery Visual Cortex is more active during visualizaiton tasks