Qualitative stof

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Questions and Answers

What are qualitative researchers interested in:

understanding the meaning people have constructed, that is, how people make sense of their world and the experiences they have in the world.

Qualitative research is ...

Systematic
Empirical
Critical
Iterative

What are the 6 steps in Qualitative research?

Topic and Research Question
Literature Review
Research Design
Data collection
Data analysis
Report

What is de definitie van Qualitative research volgens Denzin & Lincoln (2005)?

Qualitative research is a situated activity that locates the observer in the world Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of Qualitative research of Maanen (1979)?

... An umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques which seek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to terms with the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or less naturally occurring phenomena in the social world. Signup and view all the answers

What is knowable:

inteprevists: data is constructed with participants, data is expressed in language, subjective, linked to context, seeking evidence

protivists: data is collected from the real world, data is expressed in number, objective, generalizable, seeking evidence of frequency

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How do we get knowledge

<ul> <li>Interviews</li> <li>Ethnography</li> <li>Case studies</li> <li>Document analysis</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Qualitative researcher vs Qantitative researchers focus

<ul> <li>Qualitative research seek meaning</li> <li>Quantitative researchers seek truth</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

How do we arrive at new knowledge?

Induction <ol> <li>Observations</li> <li>Pattern</li> <li>Tentative hypothesis</li> <li>Theory Deduction</li> <li>Theory</li> <li>Hypothesis</li> <li>Observations</li> <li>Confirmation</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What do we do as qualitative researchers?

<ol> <li>We interpret in an already interpreted world</li> <li>We observe and question the world to find evidence of meaning</li> <li>We build understanding from our intepretations of this evidence</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Research roles by Adler & Adler 1987

<ol> <li>Peripheral</li> <li>Active</li> <li>Complete member</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Qual research is distinct from quant research:

<ul> <li>Iterative, meaning oriented and context-dependent</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Acces is something that increases over time

<ul> <li>Establish trust</li> <li>Experience</li> <li>Consider their point of view</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Conducting research is not the same from having knowledge about research

<ul> <li>Creating</li> <li>Evaluating</li> <li>Analyzing</li> <li>Applying</li> <li>Understanding</li> <li>Remembering</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Uderlying philosophies of quant and qual

Quantitative - Positivist - Deductive Qualitative - Interpretivist - Inductive Signup and view all the answers

Case study definition of Creswell:

Case study research is a qualitative approach in which the investigator explores a bounded system (a case) or multiple cases over time, through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and reports a case description and case based themes. Signup and view all the answers

Types of case studies:

Explanatory/Pilot study

Revelatory

Multiple

Intrinsic

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Grounded theory

The aim to generate or discover a theory that helps explain practice or provides a framework for further research. Actions, interactions, social process of people are what we aim to capture, then theory is build from this. Signup and view all the answers

Research design as a interconnected process

In a qualitative study, a research design should be a reflexive process operating through every stage of the project. The activities of collecting and analyzing data, developing and modifying theory, elaborating or refocusing the research questions, and identifying and addressing validity threates, Signup and view all the answers

Maxwell elements of research design

<ul> <li>Goals:</li> <li>Conceptual framework</li> <li>Research question</li> <li>Methods</li> <li>Validity</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Quali vs Quanti samples

<ul> <li>Purposeful sample - Information Rich</li> <li>Random sample - Representativeness</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

What is the rule of the thumb?

To use redundancy or saturation as a criteria for enough Signup and view all the answers

The role of academic literature:

<ol> <li>Using literature before your study starts</li> <li>Using literature during your analysis</li> <li>Using literature during your write up</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Sample strategies

<ul> <li>Convenience: chosen because cases are close at hand rather then bing randomly selected</li> <li>Snowball or Chain : you initially contact a few respondents and ask them whether they know anybody</li> <li>Typical: illustrates or highlights what is typical, normal, average.</li> <li>Extreme: Learning from highly unusual manifestations of the phenomenon of interest</li> <li>Theoretical: the process of data collection for generating theory.</li> <li>Satisfied purposeful: illustrates characteristics of particular subgroups of interest</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Semi structured interviews

<ul> <li>Key questions and overall topic structure are planned in advance</li> <li>The conversation is allowed to flow but the interviewer brings the interviewee back on track regularly.</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Preparing for an interview

<ul> <li>Write up an interview schedule</li> <li>Practice your questions and revise the schedule</li> <li>Confirm time and place and prepare equipment</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

The interview guide or schedule is

<ul> <li>A document that organizes the flow of your interview questions</li> <li>Should be divided into sub-topics (4 groups)-</li> <li>Each topic should have around 5 questions</li> <li>Consider the introductory statement and how you will link between each subtopic</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Structure of an interview schedule

<ul> <li>Orienting</li> <li>Initial</li> <li>Deeper</li> <li>Wrap up</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Types of questions

<ul> <li>Factual</li> <li>Knowledge</li> <li>Emotion</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Question wording?

<ul> <li>Open ended: avoid dichotomous responses</li> <li>Neutral: Minimize predetermined responses</li> <li>Singular: No more that one idea in a give question</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Probing techniques:

<ul> <li>Detail oriented probes: who, why, where? What happend next?</li> <li>Elaboration probes: nodding your head "uh-huh"</li> <li>Clarification probes: you said the lecture was a succes, what do you mean by that?</li> <li>Comparing probes: how does X compare to Y</li> <li>Silent probe: akward silence, triggering the informant to elaborate</li> <li>Echo probe: focus on issue by repeating a word you find interesting</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Good interview behavior

<ol> <li>Start with a good introduction</li> <li>Converse</li> <li>Listen and show support</li> <li>Be persistent</li> <li>Maintain control</li> <li>Good timing</li> <li>Face to face</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Strategies for overcoming common problems:

<ul> <li>Overly talkative: redirect, reduce your head nods, rephrase/reorder your questions</li> <li>Shy/quit: increase your head nodding, confirm after an answers that is was helpful, use lots of probing questions</li> <li>Relucant/skeptical: provide a good introduction, confirm after an answers that is was helpful, consider dropping questions to focus on what is really important.</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

What are qualitative observations

<ul> <li>A systematic method whereby the research uses senses to gather experiential data from being in a particular setting</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

What are the advantages of observations?

<ul> <li>Understands the context in which people act</li> <li>Support an open, discovery-oriented inductive approach</li> <li>Notice what insiders do not pay attention to</li> <li>Learning things would be not be discussed in interviews</li> <li>Better understanding of the research setting assits with analysis</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Limits of observations?

<ul> <li>It can be diffecult to predict when events of interest will occur</li> <li>Time consuming, slow process</li> <li>Restricted to information that can be overtly observed</li> <li>Difficult to learn about the past</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Keep in mind observations...

<ul> <li>Wil only be as good as the preparation</li> <li>Observations gives an additional perspective not the defenitive persepective</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Good observations require...

<ul> <li>Skills</li> <li>Rigorous training</li> <li>Careful preparation</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

The observer role ...

<ul> <li>May change over time</li> <li>Varies based on the topic & setting</li> <li>Depends on the researcher</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Drafting a observations guide

<ul> <li>What will be your observer role?</li> <li>What are your observation questions?</li> <li>What will you focus on based on your questions?</li> <li>What do you expect to find that will be relevant for your study</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Observations dimensions

<ul> <li>Physical environment</li> <li>Social environment</li> <li>Activity</li> <li>Communication</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Online observations are different...

<ul> <li>the context collapse -> concealed</li> <li>Mobility, multiple usernames -> difficulties with determine who acts</li> <li>What you see is not what you get</li> <li>Who risks to remain unaware of patterns</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Steps for iterative qualitative data analysis

Collect data <ol> <li>Prepare the raw data</li> <li>Primary cycle coding</li> <li>Create a codebook</li> <li>Secondary cycle coding</li> <li>Revisit the scholarly literature on your topic to focus rest of analysis</li> <li>Create relationships between categories</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Primary cycle coding?

<ul> <li>Start with open codes</li> <li>Stay close to what data says; don't try to answer the RQ or superimpose your interpretation yet</li> <li>Constantly compare</li> <li>Make memos</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Create and maintain a codebook...

Count, split, combine, define, re-organize Signup and view all the answers

Secondary cycle coding:

Turn primary codes into interpretive concepts, lumping them together into unique hierarchical categories Signup and view all the answers

Descriptive tactics:

<ul> <li>Counting</li> <li>Comparing</li> <li>Explanatory tactics</li> <li>Relationships</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Overlooked distinction

<ul> <li>Procedural ethics</li> <li>Practical ethics</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Why do ethics matter?

<ul> <li>Qualitative researchers interact with their participants</li> <li>Qualitative research produces a great deal of context information</li> <li>Our analysis can impact people's lives</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

9 Ethical issues

<ol> <li>Do no harm</li> <li>Privacy and anonymity</li> <li>Confidentiality</li> <li>Informed consent</li> <li>Rapport and friendship</li> <li>Intrusiveness</li> <li>Innapropriate behavior</li> <li>Data interpretation</li> <li>Data ownership and rewards</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Ethics takeaways

<ul> <li>Treat informants with the dignity, respect and trust they deserve</li> <li>Keep things professional: be aware of boundaries - those of your informants, but also own</li> <li>Obtain, interpet and share your data in a transparent matter</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

What is descriptive data synthesis:

Grouping according to difference <ul> <li>Integrating, counting, comparing</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Explanatory data synthesis:

the how and why of specific categories/groups <ul> <li>Factoring, revisiting the literature, relationships</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Trustworthiness is judge in terms of:

<ul> <li>Transferability</li> <li>Credibility</li> <li>Dependability</li> <li>Confirmability</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Validity strategies takeaways

<ul> <li>Leave behind the quantitative threats and aims</li> <li>We are instead concerned with how trustworthy the research is</li> <li>You can achieve this by giving rich detail, recording, reflecting and reporting on the choices you have made</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Writing up your qualitative research

We write about the pattern(s) of theoretical significance that we found in our data set (that are core to answering the RQ) Signup and view all the answers

Results

<ul> <li>Comparison</li> <li>Narrative</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Common mistakes in reporting qualitative research

<ol> <li>Telling about data, not showing it</li> <li>Showing too much data and not interpreting it</li> <li>Using deductive "shorthand"</li> <li>Quantifying qualitative data</li> <li>Inappropriately mixing inductive and deductive data</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Better patterns paths for qualitative research

<ul> <li>Make sure your methods section includes "the basics"</li> <li>Show data - in a smart fashion</li> <li>Think about using organizing figures</li> <li>Think about telling a story</li> <li>Consider "modeling" your paper after someone whose style you like who consistently publishes qualitative work</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

Using your data:

The sandwich approach to using your data in the body of the paper <ol> <li>First explain the core idea that we be depicted in the following data</li> <li>Show that data</li> <li>Finally tell more abstractly what the data showed</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

Writing takeaways

<ul> <li>You write to establish the credibility of your research</li> <li>Cover the basics: describe what you did</li> <li>Therefore it is of importance to nicely display your results, thematically, by comparison, through narrrative</li> <li>Consider your audience and implications for practice</li> <li>Use literature and define key terms</li> <li>Cite correctly and use AI with care</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

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Study Notes

Qualitative Research Overview

Focuses on understanding human experiences, behaviors, and social phenomena through in-depth insights.
Encourages participant involvement, expressing data through language and narratives.

Steps in Qualitative Research

Identify the research problem and purpose.
Design the study and select participants.
Collect data through interviews, observations, or other means.
Analyze the data for themes and patterns.
Interpret the findings in context.
Share results through various mediums.

Definitions of Qualitative Research

Denzin & Lincoln (2005): Emphasize the subjective nature of qualitative research, viewing it as a multi-faceted approach.
Maanen (1979): Highlights qualitative research as focused on social reality representation through narrative and description.

Knowable Perspectives

Interpretivists: Data construction occurs with participants; subjective, language-based, context-specific, focused on evidence.
Positivists: Real-world data collection emphasizing numerical representation; objective with generalizability, seeking frequency evidence.

Knowledge Acquisition in Research

Qualitative researchers generate knowledge through participant interactions and context interpretation, differing from the quantitative emphasis on statistical generalization.

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research Focus

Qualitative research emphasizes depth of understanding; quantitative focuses on measurement and statistical validity.

Research Roles (Adler & Adler 1987)

Roles vary from observer to participant, shaping data collection and analysis processes.

Distinction between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

Access to data evolves over time, with ongoing insights informing the research process.
Conducting research differs from theoretical knowledge; qualitative often relies on iterative discovery rather than fixed methods.

Case Study Insights

Defined by Creswell: A method for in-depth exploration of complex issues within real-life contexts.
Types include Explanatory, Revelatory, Multiple, and Intrinsic case studies.

Grounded Theory and Research Design

Grounded theory: an inductive approach focusing on theory development from data.
Research design as a dynamic, interconnected process incorporating multiple elements.

Maxwell’s Elements of Research Design

Includes purpose, conceptual framework, research questions, methods, and specific contexts influencing data collection.

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Qualitative sampling is often purposive or theoretical, contrasting with quantitative methods focusing on random sampling.

Interviewing Techniques

Semi-structured interviews are guided yet flexible, allowing for deeper exploration.
Interview schedules should include question types and thoughtful wording to enhance data quality.

Probing Techniques

Probes enhance responses, clarifying ambiguous statements and inviting participants to elaborate on points.

Observation in Qualitative Research

Observations provide rich context and details; however, they may have limitations such as observer bias.
Good observations are systematic and require an understanding of the context and participant role.

Iterative Qualitative Data Analysis

Involves systematic coding in primary and secondary cycles; maintaining a codebook is essential for organization and reference.

Descriptive Data Synthesis

Integrative approach facilitating understanding of qualitative findings through narrative representation.

Importance of Ethics in Research

Ethical considerations are critical, involving respect, confidentiality, and informed consent.
Key ethical issues include participant welfare, data integrity, and researcher transparency.

Trustworthiness and Validity Strategies

Trustworthiness assessed through credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.
Validity strategies include triangulation, member checking, and audit trails.

Writing Up Qualitative Research

Emphasis on clarity and coherence in presenting findings, ensuring that the narrative reflects participant voices and insights.
Common mistakes include insufficient detail in analysis or failure to connect findings to research questions.

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