Qualitative Research Methods Overview

Focus Group Interviews

• Prolonged social interaction between researchers and participants.
• Participants are often selected as a homogenous group for a comfortable group dynamic.
• Researchers act as moderators.

Photo Elicitation

• Interview stimulated and guided by photographs.
• Participants take pictures and then interpret them.
• Used for historical and non-historical research.

Photovoice

• Participants take photos and interpret them to express their perspectives.

Diaries

• Can provide intimate and detailed description of a person’s everyday life.

Observer-Participant Role in Participant Observation

• Junker (1960) identified two categories:
  • Complete participants conceal their identity as researchers.
  • Complete observers do not attempt participation in the group’s activities.
• Observers must overcome two hurdles:
  • Gaining entrée into the social group.
  • Establishing rapport and developing trust within the social group.

Gathering Unstructured Observational Data

• Features of the setting, characteristics of people, activities, frequency and duration, process, and outcomes are key considerations.

Sampling Observations and Selecting Observational Location

• Single positioning means staying in one location.
• Multiple positioning involves moving around the site to observe behaviors from different locations.
• Mobile positioning involves following a person throughout an activity.

Recording Observations

• Logs (field diaries) represent a daily record of events and conversations in the field.
• Field notes synthesize and understand data.
  • Descriptive notes are objective descriptions of observed events and conversations.
  • Reflective notes document the researcher’s personal experiences, reflections, and progress.

Sampling in Quantitative Research

• Knowledge about the world is partial and temporary.
• Our knowledge approximates the world but is not a true representation.
• Population is the entire group of interest.
• Sample is a subset of the population.
• Researchers specify population characteristics through eligibility criteria.
  • Inclusion criteria determines whether a person qualifies as a member of a population.
  • Exclusion criteria excludes someone as a member of a population.
• Sampling Bias is the failure to achieve representativeness.
• Strata is a segment of a population based on shared characteristics.

Categories of Sampling Plan

• Probability sampling is based on random selection with each element having an equal chance of being chosen.
  • Simple Random Sampling is through lottery or a table of random numbers.
  • Stratified Random Sampling involves taking certain areas of the population, dividing them into sections, and then randomly selecting from each section.
  • Systematic Random Sampling involves selecting every kth case from a list.
  • (Multistage) Cluster Random Sampling involves selecting broad groups rather than individuals.
• Non-Probability Sampling is non-random.
  • Accidental, Convenience, Incidental sampling utilizes readily available subjects.
  • Quota Sampling identifies strata of the population and determines how many participants from each stratum are needed to meet a quota.
  • Consecutive Sampling involves recruiting all people from an accessible population over a specific time interval or for a specified sample size.
  • Purposive or Judgmental sampling involves hand-picking subjects based on the researcher’s knowledge of the population.

Evaluating (Non-) Probability Sampling

• Probability sampling is the best method for obtaining representative samples.
• It allows researchers to estimate the magnitude of sampling error.
• The drawback is impracticality.
• Practical issues can affect who can be included in a sample.

Sample Size in Quantitative Studies

• Researchers need to pay attention to the sample size needed for statistical conclusion validity.
• Using as large a sample as possible minimizes sampling error.
• Power analysis can estimate sample size.

Frequency Distribution

• Systematic arrangement of numerical values from lowest to highest, with a count of how many times each value was obtained.
• Range is the highest score minus the lowest score.

Measurement Levels

• Nominal:
  • Lowest level.
  • Numbers are assigned for classification.
  • Example: 1 = male; 2 = female; 3 = others.
• Ordinal:
  • Attributes are ordered or ranked according to some criterion.
  • Example: ability to perform ADLs; 1 = completely dependent; 2 = needs another person’s assistance; 3 = needs mechanical assistance; 4 = completely independent.
• Interval:
  • Distance between the ranking is specified.
  • Example: 60 Celsius is 10 Fahrenheit warmer than 50 Fahrenheit
• Ratio:
  • Highest scale.
  • Example: 200 pounds is twice as heavy as 100 pounds.

Inferential Statistics

• Based on negative inference, utilizing a null hypothesis.
• Researchers seek to reject the null hypothesis through statistical tests.
• Significance levels (alpha or a) are commonly .05 and .01.
• P-value is compared to the alpha level:
  • If p < a, the null hypothesis is rejected.
  • If p > a, the null hypothesis is accepted.

Types of Qualitative Sampling

• Convenience sampling: Utilizes readily available informants.
  • Not a preferred approach even in qualitative studies.
• Snowball sampling: Asking early informants to identify other potential participants.
  • More cost-efficient and practical.

Standard Deviation and Variability

• Average of deviations from the mean.