Untitled

• Revision guide for psychology approaches
• Content includes:
  • Origins of psychology
  • Behaviourist
  • Social Learning Theory (SLT)
  • Psychodynamic
  • Cognitive
  • Biological
  • Humanistic
  • Comparison of approaches

Origins of Psychology

• Wilhelm Wundt opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig in Germany in 1879.
• It marked the first laboratory dedicated to psychology.
• Its opening signaled the beginning of modern psychology.
• Wundt, separated psychology from philosophy through structured analysis of the mind with objective measurement
• Wundt believed in reductionism, suggesting consciousness could be broken down into basic elements without losing properties
• He studied the mind scientifically using introspection.

Introspection

• 'Looking into', derived from Latin.
• Served as the first systematic approach to study the mind by dissecting consciousness into thoughts, images, and sensations.
• Wundt asserted that training allowed systematic observation of mental processes like memory and perception using introspection.
• Participants in experiments were presented with stimuli like visual images or auditory tones under controlled conditions, then asked to describe their inner experiences.

The Scientific Method

• Employs objective, systematic, and replicable methods.
• Accurately measures and record data.
• Aims for results that are replicable by other researchers.
• Develops, modifies, and falsifies theory based on accurate, objective data.
• Involves constant testing and theory development

Is Introspection Scientific?

• Science employs reductionism, breaking down complex phenomena.
• Wundt reduced human experiences and consciousness into thoughts, feelings, and sensations, termed structuralism.
• Wundt believed in psychology as a science, using introspection as a scientific method with controlled settings.
• Science establishes rules or laws using measurements, a nomothetic approach, whereas introspection data is ideographic, based on individual experiences.
• Science pursues objectivity, while introspection observations are subjective, based on personal experiences.
• Science seeks explanations, whereas introspection describes experiences.

Wundt's Impact

• Wundt's structuralist introspection approach was not scientific
• His work highlighted a need for the scientific study of human thought, feeling, and action.
• Psychology explores consciousness from a scientific approach.
• Behaviourists emphasize objective, observable behavior.
• Biological approach employs techniques like fMRI and PET scans.
• Cognitive approach uses controlled experiments to test mental processes.

Behaviourist Approach

• Psychology must be scientific, using experiments and objective, valid measurements
• Subjective experiences can only be inferred by what is said
• Only objective measures of behaviour should be recorded.
• The approach is central in the nature-nurture debate
  • Nature: Inherited characteristics
  • Nurture: Learning and development through upbringing.
• Behaviourists believe humans are born as 'Tabula Rasa' (blank slates)
• Characteristics are constructed through experiences.
• Learning occurs through classical conditioning (association) and operant conditioning (reward and punishment)

Classical Conditioning

• Ivan Pavlov, studied the salivation reflex.
• Noted that dogs salivated before studies began
• Dogs produced saliva when fed
• Pavlov rang a bell each time
• After repeated pairings the dogs salivated to the bell alone demonstrating the bell's association with the response.
• US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Produces a natural/innate response.
• UCR (Unconditioned Response): Response from another stimulus.
• CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Stimulus that now produces a conditioned response.
• CR (Conditioned Response): The response that has been learned.
• Pavlov discovered generalisation, dogs salivated to various bells after learning to salivate to one sound.

Watson & Raynor: Little Albert Case (1920)

• Aims to induce fear through classical conditioning.
• Also to see if fear transfers to similar objects (generalisation), how time affects fear, and if fear can be removed in a laboratory
• A case study of Little Albert, 9 to 11 months old
• Described as unemotional by 'wet nurse' in a hospital
• Albert showed no fear of rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, mask, and cotton wool
• At nine months, a metal bar struck behind Albert's head startled and caused him to cry.
• Rat presented in lab, the steel bar was hit when Albert reached for it
• repeated pairing created fear, Albert cried and crawled away from the rat.
• Toy blocks presented, Albert played happily, the fear response was shown when dog, and the other stimuli were presented
• One month later, Albert showed fear when presented rat, rabbit, dog, fur coat, Santa Claus mask. In varying degrees
• The conditioning created the following:
• The fear was conditioned (Aim 1)
• The fear was generalised (Aim 2)
• The fear lasted a month (Aim 3)
• Could not examine if the fear can be removed due to ethical issues (Aim 4)

Evaluation of Little Albert

• Usefulness: informs about fear learning and potential reduction methods.
• Generalisation: Uses one baby
• Calm temperament may differ from other children's reactions
• Controls: Reduces outside factors, fear established for furry things.
• Ecological Validity: Carried out in controlled settings.
• Ethics: Showed repetitive distress creating fear, repetitive unethical measures.

Operant Conditioning - B.F. Skinner

• Learning through rewards and punishments, behaviours are repeated if rewarded
• Punishments make someone less likely to repeat behaviour.

Skinner Box

• Skinner developed it to control rewards/punishments when shaping behaviour.

Findings from the Skinner Box

• Positive Reinforcement: Rat presses lever and gets food.
  • Adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage behaviour
• Negative Reinforcement: Rat presses lever and electric shock is taken away
  • Removing unpleasant stimulus to increase desired behaviour Punishment: When the Rat presses the lever and receiving a shock
  • Giving unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour.

Behaviourist Evaluation

• Can behaviour in animals apply to humans?
• Simplistic form of human behaviour.
• Benefits from a laboratory setting to control variables objectively and scientifically
• Emphasises science, uses reliable methods.
• Real-world application
  • Treatment of disorders e.g. token economy and systematic desensitisation for phobias
• Ignores the importance of thinking and social interactions

Social Learning Theory (SLT)

• Albert Bandura believed behaviour is learned through observing and imitating others.
• A role model is someone whose learned behaviour others copy
• Modelling is the act of demonstrating the behaviour
• Observational learning requires:
  • Attention: Observer pays attention
  • Retention: Observer remembers behavior
  • Reproduction: Observer able to perform behaviour
  • Motivation: Observer is motivated
• Bandura demonstrated aggression

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

• Participants: 72 children from the Stanford nursery school, between aged 3-5.
• Pretested for aggression by experimenter and teacher
• Made up of 36 boys and 36 girls
• Procedure
  • Room 1: Child designs a picture at a table, another table, and a chair
  • Other object like a Bobo doll the procedure depending on the condition
  • Room 2: Child shown attractive toys, told those toys are preserved for the other children.
• The experimenter used frustration and anger to motivate the experiment
• Room 3 include toy; aggressive and non- aggressive Child was by two unknown observers in this condition.
• There were three model conditions of aggressive, non-aggressive, and or no model
• Aggressive model:
• The model plays in the room with the child before playing aggressively with Bobo doll.
• The model makes comments when they "Sock it to him", strike the Bobo doll and use a mallet, kick/ throw doll in air.
• Non aggressive model: Ignore bobo doll
• Control/ No model: children play alone in a room, they would play for 10min
• The second independent variable was gender if the children would be influenced by models
• Children used for same sex conditions

Findings of the Experiment

• The children showed more physical and verbal aggression the children compared to the groups
• Also it noted that:
• Children exposed to the aggressive model will copy behaviour.
• Children copy same sex models with effects based depending on male/female behavior

Physical/Verbal Acts of Aggression in Model Conditions

• Aggressive model condition showed more physical and verbal aggression than other conditions.
• Non-aggressive: No less aggressive than control/no model.

Does seeing the non-aggressive model reduce aggressive behavior?

• The non-aggressive: No less aggressive than control/no model.
• Does gender of the aggressive model affect aggressive behaviour?
  • Boys showed more amounts of aggression when the model was male.
• Girls: More acts of physical aggression were model was male
• Showed aggression based on specific behaviour

Conclusion

• Exposed children act aggressively.
• Same Sex Model Imitation children do act by behavior
• Children learn through watching of imitation to occur

Psychodynamic Approach

Sigmund Freud

• Lived in Vienna, Austria, later moved to London
• Trained as a doctor interested by anxiety. The therapy to improve the conditions was named psychoanalysis.
• His theory became known the psychodynamic approach

The mind

• 2 Parts
• Conscious memories
• Unconscious thoughts/feelings
• Defense mechanisms prevent to the conscious- many types
• Displacement unacceptable expressed by door slamming
  • Denial
  • Reality unaccepted
  • Repressing- no acknowledgement

Tripartite personality

• Includes id, makes up of the satisfaction
• ego makes up of decisions, compromising
• Finally, superego makes up concerns, and morality

Influence of Childhood Experiences

Freud believed we all had libido as a motivation for life. That adult personality is based on experience

• Childhood has progress, has new part in personality

The Psychosexual Stages

• The stages are listed as oral, anal, phallic, latent, and or genital.
• Anal is for ages 2-5
• Oral is for ages 0-2

Anal stage

Pleasure comes from holding or letting go of the restriction Ego has development of the ids immediate reaction Phallic stage - the super ego has more on morality and goes through new complex

Latent

• This stage lasts until puberty development
• Finally the genital and develops a new personality

Freud’s Analysis of Little Hans

• Aim was about providing evidence for his theory
• Used a small boy for the therapy and psychosexual theory
• Study
• Freud used case studies and used Hans and family with discussion and questions

His Findings

• Desire for mother with the conflicts with mother. His desires where with his mother

Dream Analysis

Royal road activities

• Aware of the psychology to solve the conflict
• Process of feelings in the consciousness memories
• Fulfilment aspect personality which id makes a person

Symbolism nature

• Symbolic with desires of fulfilling wishes
• Manifest by the dreamer experiences content.
• Studies of cases

Psychodynamic Approach Evaluation

• Lacks support, open to more interpretation
• Psychoanalysis; effective for range people
• Syndrome; can lack with memories and be hard

Humanistic

• Humanistic psychologists believe they're all different
• Ideographic uniqueness
• Believes behaviour is caused by thought, feelings, or environment
• Suggests free will is something all may control.

Abraham Maslow Hierarchy

• Basic needs for to function throughout life
• A series of self- fulfilment from achievements
• There are more needs than the person is capable

Self actualization

• Achieving well-being
• Not permanent
• Carl Rogers needs a worth for a sense to develop from them
• Those selves need to be achieved

Concepts

• Must achieve the self

• Counselling is to develop techniques and support from each people. It is to show traits There is Elliot & Friere that is used to review from them. A high understanding needs psychology

Cognitive Approach

Is to recall all the information we have memorized Is used to solve the new things, with retell and jokes

In 60s systematic of systems, they believed it should use experiment Wanted to study the way it processed information, perceptions, and behavior.

Those could not be seem, the computer models is use to find it the processes.

Computer Model

For how mind process and functions can be used to process Has to have outputs and inputs for seeing or process the brain

Psychologists and other fields find what goes on It has internal processes from what causes the behavior

Schema Represents all the objects and storage Schema has to be an active processed mind with have a new view

Those would be by called distortions, Theory would tell about a good process

The person would become different than how they were.

Bartlett - "War of the Ghosts"

Two men going to go to the beach. They where there that they where being attacked. He gets shot and comes up. Becomes silence Bugieski and Alampacy Rat experiment People who went here before can perceive in various forms

Cognitive Neuuscience Influential from mental processes Mental comes from the circuits of the brain

Identifies how damage

How Damaged Affects Brain

Emergence

• How PET shows scans helps the area
• How the effects
• How neuro circuity affects brain
• Sees the mind which affects emotions It makes it hard to be able to be accurate with the emotions.

Most is done within controlled systems which lacks.

We need the right choice we can control for that reason.

Biological Approach

Combines Psychology and Biology The body needs and structure

Divides into -CNS and the PNS parts to work by

Brain can divided into hemispheres. Its outer surface is sponge the person couldn't would feel it

How they feel the senses of that sense

• Hippocampus
• Hypothalamus
• thalamus

Theory of Behaviour

Charles Darwin theory has different species coming. Which change over time Show wide change to vary depending on the species Characteristics due to nature

Heridity Code

• Are passed by generation
• But interactions matter
• How the genotype becomes a phenotype

Twin studies, studying rolls as an individual may look the part

And will be there always, they would always have small samples. twins can act to nurture. There is still another issue as there is an overlap in twin activity.

Technique can come with where person has new activity.

Researchers Often Break Behaviour Into Small Parts

May focus on gene Oxytocin is meant to send those feeling Testosterones aggression Cortisol sends stress hormone

Aaxon are one with behavior Sends messages to Brain to change to body Chemical messages go by transmitter.

• Messagers sent messages They transited from year to the next. Scientific ways help people Use studies to help there brains. Also the ways to help us understand illness for mental

But can affect how someone sees actions.