Questions and Answers
Which of the following describes the principle of social influence?
Neutrality is often considered a valid option in group norms.
False
What are injunctive norms?
Behaviors perceived as approved by other people.
What is private acceptance?
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Match the theories of emotions with their definitions:
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According to Weiner's attributional theory, emotions stem from the ______ we attribute to events.
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What happens when we do not know how to behave in social settings?
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The James-Lange theory suggests that the experience of emotion is based on physiological reactions.
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Which type of norm is not openly stated and is learned through transgression?
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What is the hallmark of the Schachter-Singer theory of emotion?
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What are the components of the two-factor theory of emotion?
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Who conducted the experiment that tested the two-factor theory of emotion in 1962?
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Participants who were informed about the effects of adrenalin were more likely to feel happy than those who were not informed.
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According to the opponent-process theory, what happens to emotional reactions over time?
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What does Lazarus's cognitive theory suggest about emotions?
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The arousal theory suggests that all physiological responses are unique to specific emotions.
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What might happen in a group where one person does not conform to the emotional expressions?
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The two-factor theory states that emotion is a combination of physiological ______ and cognitive ______.
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What are the seven theories of emotions mentioned?
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What does the James-Lange theory of emotion propose?
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Who independently proposed the James-Lange theory of emotion?
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According to Cannon-Bard theory, how do emotions and physiological reactions occur?
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What is the main difference between Cannon-Bard theory and James-Lange theory?
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What is the contribution of Schachter-Singer’s two-factor theory of emotions?
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The __________ theory suggests that physiological arousal leads to emotional labeling based on environmental context.
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What physiological changes occur when a person feels fear according to James-Lange theory?
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What does the Opponent-process theory explain?
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Who proposed the cognitive theory of emotion?
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What are the four steps in the process of emotion according to the two-factor theory?
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In Schachter and Singer's experiment, what hormone was injected into participants to produce arousal?
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Participants who were informed about the effects of the injection showed the same emotional responses as those who were not informed.
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The opponent-process theory suggests that emotional reactions are followed by an opposite reaction.
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What are the two central assumptions of the opponent-process theory of emotion?
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According to Lazarus's cognitive theory, what is essential before an emotional reaction occurs?
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Match the following theories of emotion with their key concepts:
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What can trigger social contagion effects?
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Lower self-esteem individuals are less susceptible to social influence regarding emotional expression.
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Study Notes
Theories of Emotions
- Emotions have physiological, cognitive, and subjective components.
- The order of physiological arousal and emotional experience is debated among various theories.
- Theories include: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Schachter-Singer, Opponent-process, Lazarus’s cognitive theory, Arousal, and Social theories.
James-Lange Theory of Emotion
- Proposed by William James and Carl Lange.
- Emotions result from physiological reactions to external stimuli.
- Sequence: Environmental event → Physiological change → Emotional experience.
- Example: Seeing a bear leads to trembling, resulting in the realization of fear ("I am trembling, therefore I am afraid").
- Suggests that physiological states create emotions rather than emotions causing physiological responses.
Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
- Developed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard.
- Emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously in response to a stimulus.
- The thalamus sends messages to the brain resulting in reactions: "I see a snake → I am afraid → I begin to tremble."
- Emotions do not arise solely from physiological changes or cognitive processes; both occur in parallel.
Bem’s Explanation of Behavior
- Introduced by Thomas Gilbert in "Human Competence."
- Focuses on performance analysis through the Behaviour Engineering Model (BEM).
- Identifies distinctions between behavior and accomplishment to define "worthy performance."
- Introduces the concept of Potential for Improving Performance (PIP) based on performance gaps.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotions
- Proposes that emotions arise from the interaction of physiological arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal.
- Sequence: Physiological arousal + Environmental cues = Emotion label.
- Example: Tension in a parking lot leads to fear if a man approaches or passion if a friendly interaction occurs.
Schachter and Singer’s Experiment
- Conducted in 1962 with 184 male participants injected with epinephrine.
- Participants were misinformed about the injection effects.
- Those not informed were more influenced by the confederate’s emotional behavior (euphoric or angry).
- Findings supported that emotions are influenced by physiological states and cognitive interpretations of those states.
Major Comparisons and Contrasts
- James-Lange theory links physiological responses directly to emotions.
- Cannon-Bard theory posits that emotions and physiological responses are parallel processes.
- Schachter-Singer emphasizes the role of cognition in interpreting physiological arousal, suggesting emotions arise from situational cues.
- Each theory presents a unique perspective on how emotions are structured and experienced.### Emotional Arousal and Cognition
- Emotional experiences are influenced by the availability of cognitions at the time of arousal.
- Lack of explanation for arousal leads individuals to label emotions based on external cues.
- Arousal without clear reasons may result in incorrect labeling of emotions.
Experiment Overview
- The study involved 184 male college students from Minnesota University.
- Participants were given a fake injection called “Suproxin,” which was either adrenalin or a placebo.
- Adrenalin effects included increased heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, lasting from 10 minutes to an hour.
- Participants were divided into different groups:
- Adrenalin Ignorant (no information)
- Adrenalin Informed (informed of effects)
- Adrenalin Misinformed (incorrect information)
- Control Group
Findings on Emotional Response
- Misinformed participants experienced the highest levels of happiness due to lack of understanding of their physiological state.
- Emotional reactions differ based on how much individuals understand their arousal responses.
Two-Factor Theory by Schachter and Singer
- Emotion arises from physiological arousal combined with cognitive appraisal of the situation.
- Arousal from events (e.g., traffic scares) is labeled based on contextual cues (fear, attraction).
- Critics argue that emotions can be felt before cognitive evaluation occurs and that emotional states have distinct physiological signatures.
Opponent-Process Theory
- Strong emotions trigger their opposites shortly after (e.g., elation followed by disappointment).
- Repeated exposure to stimuli weakens the initial emotional response while the opposing reaction strengthens.
- This theory can help explain addictive behaviors, where pleasure suppresses withdrawal pain.
Lazarus’s Cognitive Theory
- Emotions are fundamentally cognitive functions dependent on the appraisal of a situation.
- Situational appraisal can lead to either positive or negative emotional states.
- Responses to threats may involve coping strategies to manage emotions.
Arousal Theory
- Arousal is a general physiological response that elevates awareness, influencing emotional experiences.
- Different emotions stem from cognitive interpretation of arousal states, challenging the idea of distinct emotional experiences.
Social Theories of Emotion
- Emotions can be contagious, leading to collective behaviors in groups, noticeable in crowd dynamics.
- Social proofs impact individual emotions; people often conform to group emotions to fit in.
- Normative social influence is driven by the desire for approval from others and can significantly alter emotional expression.
Norms and Emotional Behavior
- Norms dictate acceptable behaviors, including emotional expressions within a group.
- Deviations from social norms can lead to emotional reactions, such as shame or anxiety.
- Understanding group dynamics is crucial for influencing emotions positively or negatively.
Decision Making in Group Dynamics
- Individuals often conform to group behaviors to avoid social ridicule or rejection.
- Emotional responses tend to align with those of the group, particularly in ambiguous or urgent situations.
- Public compliance differs from private acceptance, with the former being driven by fear of disapproval.
Conclusion on Emotional Theories
- Emotional experiences arise from a combination of cognitive appraisal and physiological arousal.
- Various theories (two-factor, opponent-process, cognitive) explain different aspects of how emotions are perceived and expressed.
- The interplay between individual cognition and social influence significantly shapes emotional behavior in everyday life.### Theories of Emotions
- Emotions form a significant aspect of human experience, influenced by various theories.
- Averill's Social Theory: Emotions are transitory social roles adopted based on cultural definitions.
- Weiner's Attributional Theory: Emotions stem from attributions made to events, shaping emotional responses over time.
Key Emotion Theories
- James-Lange Theory: Proposes that physiological responses to stimuli lead to the experience of emotions.
- Cannon-Bard Theory: Suggests emotions and physiological reactions occur simultaneously in response to stimuli.
- Schachter-Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory): Emotional experience arises from physiological arousal plus cognitive appraisal of the situation.
- Opponent-Process Theory: Strong emotional responses are followed by opposing emotions to maintain balance.
Emotional Mechanisms
- Bodily Arousal: Initial physiological reactions define emotional experiences.
- Cognitive Appraisal: The assessment of situations can influence emotional responses.
Characteristics and Effects of Emotions
- Emotions are complex and affect individual behavior.
- They involve physiological reactions, subjective cognitive states, and social roles.
- Emotions can lead to immediate behavioral changes and long-term impacts on well-being.
Key Terms
- Arousal: A state of mental readiness for activity.
- Cognitive Appraisal: Evaluating the potential effects of a situation on one’s well-being before reacting.
Self-Assessment Topics
- Explore key characteristics of emotions.
- Analyze the origins of emotions.
- Discuss how emotions influence individual behavior.
- Elucidate on various theories of emotions, including salient features.
- Detail the hallmark of Schachter-Singer theory.
- Define social theories concerning emotions.
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Description
Explore the various theories of emotions in this quiz. Delve into the James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, and Schachter-Singer theories, among others. Test your understanding of each theory's key concepts and criticisms to solidify your knowledge in psychology.
