Psychology Unit 2 and 3 Quiz

Unit 2: Critical Thinking and Psychology

• Critical thinking involves tolerating ambiguity, analyzing evidence, and considering alternative viewpoints.
• Psychology is the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.
• Psychology's four goals are describing behavior, explaining its causes, predicting future behavior, and influencing behavior to improve human well-being.

Unit 3: The Scientific Method

• Curiosity, skepticism, and an open mind are important in the scientific method.
• The scientific method involves identifying a question, gathering information and forming a hypothesis, conducting research, analyzing data to form conclusions, and reporting findings.

Operational Definitions

• An operational definition clarifies the variables in research studies by outlining exactly how they will be measured.
• This includes specifying the method, criteria, and properties to be studied.
• Independent variable is manipulated by the researcher to assess its effect.
• Dependent variable is the outcome that is observed or measured.

Unit 3: Research Paradigms

• Research is categorized into descriptive, correlational, and experimental techniques.
• Qualitative research often involves descriptive approaches.
• Quantitative research often focuses on correlational and experimental methods.
• Descriptive research describes behaviors as they occur.
  • Case studies offer in-depth analyses of individuals or events.
  • Naturalistic observation involves observing subjects in their natural environments.
  • Surveys collect data from a large number of participants.
• Correlational research assesses the relationship between variables without manipulating them.
  • A correlation describes the strength and direction of this relationship.
  • Correlations can be positive (increase in one variable is associated with an increase in the other) or negative (increase in one variable is associated with a decrease in the other).
• Experiments manipulate independent variables to observe their effect on dependent variables, controlling other variables.
  • Experimental groups receive a manipulation, control groups do not.
  • Between-subjects design compares different groups.
  • Within-subjects design looks for effects within a single group over time.

Ethics in Psychological Research

• The Canadian Psychological Association establishes ethical guidelines for researchers to follow.
• These guidelines emphasize participant welfare, protection from harm, ensuring informed consent without coercion, and protecting privacy and confidentiality.

Unit 5: Developmental Psychology

• Developmental Psychology studies the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral changes across a lifespan.

• Assimilation is the process of interpreting new information using existing schemas.

• Accommodation is adjusting existing schemas to incorporate new information.

• Egocentrism is the inability to take another person's perspective.

• Irreversibility is the inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events.

• Centration is focusing on only one aspect of a situation.

• Inductive reasoning involves using specific observations to draw general conclusions.

• Spatial orientation: The ability to control one's body in relation to the environment.

• Fluid intelligence: The ability to think and reason in the moment.

• Crystallized intelligence: Accumulated knowledge and skills gained over a lifetime.

###Unit 5: Piaget's Model and Kohlberg's Stages

• Piaget's stages of cognitive development outline the stages of cognitive development across the lifespan.
• Kohlberg's stages of moral development outline the stages of moral development across the lifespan.

Unit 7: Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation involves the direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behavior.
• Instincts are inherited tendencies to behave in specific ways.
• Homeostasis is the body's tendency to maintain internal balance.
• Drives are internal states of tension motivated by disruptions to homeostasis.
• Incentives are environmental stimuli that motivate behavior.
• Expectancy-value theory posits that motivation is determined by the expectation of success and the value placed on the goal.
• Extrinsic motivation is driven by external rewards or avoiding punishment
• Intrinsic motivation is driven by internal enjoyment or interest.

Unit 8: Stress and Health

• Stress can be viewed as a stimulus, a response, or an interaction between the organism and its environment.
• Stressors are stimuli that tax or exceed resources.
• Cognitive, physiological, and behavioral are components of the stress response.
• The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) describes the body's response to stress with alarm, resistance, and exhaustion phases.

Unit 9: Health Psychology

• Health psychology studies how psychological processes affect health.
• Health-enhancing behaviors promote good health.
• Health-compromising behaviors increase risks for disease.
• Protective factors are resources that help individuals cope with stress.
• Hardiness involves commitment, control, and challenge.
• Resilience is the ability to adapt and recover from adversity.
• Coping self-efficacy is the belief in one's ability to cope with challenges.
• Optimism can play an important role in stress response.
• Personality factors (eg. Type A & B) can influence stress responses.
• The appraisal process is evaluating the situation and resources to deal with stress.
• Primary appraisal is assessing the demands of a situation (what are the risks).
• Secondary appraisal involves assessing resources available for dealing with the situation (how am I going to deal).

Unit 10: Psychological Treatments

• Various types of psychological therapies exist, from psychoanalysis to cognitive therapies, with different approaches to treatment.
• Psychodynamic therapies focus on unconscious conflicts.
• Cognitive-behavior therapies combine emotional and behavioral intervention.

Unit 11: Attribution

• Attribution is the process of determining the cause of a person's behavior.
• Personal attributions emphasize the person's traits or characteristics.
• Situational attributions emphasize external factors or circumstances.
• Fundamental attribution error is overemphasizing personal attributions.
• Self-serving bias is taking credit for successes and avoiding blame for failures.
• Social roles and norms guide social behaviors.
• Social norms represent cultural rules about acceptable behavior.
• Conformity and obedience are influenced by social pressure.
• Prosocial behavior involves helping others, promoting social good.