Psychology Short-Term Memory Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What was the primary focus of behaviorism, in contrast to Miller's article?

Social influences

Emotions and feelings

Cognitive processes

Observable behaviors (correct)

The Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique primarily investigates which aspect of memory?

Visual memory recall

Semantic memory accuracy

Long-term memory retention

Capacity of short-term memory (correct)

What task was used in the Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique to disrupt rehearsal?

Singing a song

Reciting the alphabet

Solving math problems

Counting backward by threes (correct)

What does the recency effect in the serial position effect refer to?

Better recall of last items in a list Signup and view all the answers

Why are items at the beginning of a list recalled better, according to the primacy effect?

They are rehearsed more frequently Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about short-term memory capacity is accurate?

It can retain about three to seven items. Signup and view all the answers

How does semantic similarity influence short-term memory retention?

It enhances retention through chunking strategies. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant outcome from using the Brown/Peterson and Peterson technique?

Participants often forgot around half of the items after a short delay. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key improvement of the working memory model over the short-term store model?

It accounts for active processing and information storage. Signup and view all the answers

According to the research on verbal working memory, what is the anticipated recall capacity for individuals in simple span tasks?

6 items Signup and view all the answers

What did the Maxispan procedure aim to achieve in the context of verbal working memory?

To maximize the phonological loop’s capacity by limiting rehearsed items. Signup and view all the answers

How did Miller's (1956) original estimate of the limit of immediate verbal memory differ between digits and letters?

It is lower for letters than for digits. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components is NOT part of the verbal working memory systems identified in the research?

Visual sketchpad Signup and view all the answers

What was a key finding from the experiments using the Maxispan procedure?

Recall spans increased dramatically, nearing 8 items. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary finding regarding the maxispan group's performance compared to the simple span group in Experiment 2?

Maxispan group exhibited significantly higher recall spans than simple span group. Signup and view all the answers

What misconception about memory capacity did some researchers propose instead of Miller's seven-item limit?

The limit is 3 or 4 items. Signup and view all the answers

In the maxispan group, how did the number of blue letters affect recall accuracy?

Higher numbers of blue letters resulted in improved recall accuracy. Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the working memory model has been criticized for being oversimplified?

The accounting of spatial working memory differences. Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be inferred about the maxispan procedure?

It directs items into separate memory systems. Signup and view all the answers

What effect was observed in both groups regarding serial position curves?

Both groups demonstrated a strong primacy effect and a small recency effect. Signup and view all the answers

What was the effect of the number of black letters on black letter recall accuracy in the maxispan group?

Black letter recall accuracy decreased as the number of blue letters increased. Signup and view all the answers

What was the procedure for presenting letters to participants in Experiment 2?

Auditory letters presented at a rate of one every 2,000 ms. Signup and view all the answers

What role did colored squares play in the method used for the maxispan group?

They indicated whether the letter should be rehearsed. Signup and view all the answers

What statistical method was used to compare recall spans between the maxispan and simple span groups?

Cohen's d. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two separate systems in verbal working memory identified through the maxispan procedure?

Articulatory loop and executive loop Signup and view all the answers

Which model was found to be inconsistent with the findings from the maxispan procedure?

Unsworth & Engle's model of primary and secondary memory Signup and view all the answers

What effect did black letters in the maxispan procedure demonstrate support for in active maintenance?

Primacy effects Signup and view all the answers

What limitation is highlighted regarding simple span tasks in the assessment of STM capacity?

They do not capture complex cognitive interactions. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the phonological loop in the dual-system structure of verbal working memory?

It holds motor programs through rehearsal. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does the maxispan procedure reveal about short-term memory spans?

They involve multiple mental processes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the task setting process identified by Stuss and Alexander?

Planning and forming stimulus-response relationships Signup and view all the answers

How is the maxispan procedure viewed in relation to traditional simple span tasks?

It enhances diagnostic and prognostic power. Signup and view all the answers

Which brain network is associated with response inhibition and conflict monitoring?

Cognitive Control Network Signup and view all the answers

What evidence supports the existence of distinct systems in verbal working memory?

Neurological findings demonstrating distinct brain activations. Signup and view all the answers

What limitation related to executive processes is highlighted by Miyake and Friedman?

Tasks often involve multiple executive processes, complicating attribution Signup and view all the answers

Which executive process involves checking task performance to avoid errors?

Monitoring Signup and view all the answers

What does the episodic buffer in Baddeley's working memory model do?

Holds integrated information in a multi-dimensional code Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following executive functions is NOT explicitly mentioned as a key process by Stuss and Alexander?

Emotional Regulation Signup and view all the answers

What area is linked to the process of metacognition/integration as added by Stuss?

Frontopolar prefrontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

What issue remains unresolved regarding executive processes according to ongoing debates?

The exact number and classification of executive processes Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Early Research on Short-Term Capacity Limits

The Brown/Peterson and Peterson Technique, developed in the 1950s, demonstrated the fragility of short-term memory by showing that information is often forgotten within a minute.
This technique involved presenting participants with items to remember followed by a distracting task to prevent rehearsal.
Results showed that after a 5-second delay, participants forgot about half of the letters.

Serial Position Effect

This describes the U-shaped relationship between the position of a word in a list and its probability of recall.
Recency Effect: Items at the end of the list are easier to recall because they are still in short-term memory.
Primacy Effect: Items at the beginning of the list are also easier to remember because they face no competition from earlier items and are rehearsed more frequently.
Researchers estimate the size of short-term memory to be about three to seven items using this method.

Semantic Similarity of Items in Short-Term Memory

Meaning (semantics) can influence short-term memory retention.
Chunking: This strategy involves grouping related items together, increasing the amount of information stored in short-term memory.

Dysexecutive Syndrome

This condition involves problems with executive functions like planning, decision-making, and self-regulation.
It often leads to difficulties in everyday life, such as maintaining a job.
Stuss and Alexander argued that dysexecutive syndrome is not always caused by global damage to the frontal lobes but rather by dysfunction in specific regions.

Central Executive Theory

Stuss and Alexander identified three key executive processes linked to specific regions within the prefrontal cortex:
- Task Setting: Planning and learning new tasks.
- Monitoring: Checking task performance to avoid errors.
- Energisation: Sustained attention and concentration.

Central Executive Theory Limitations

Task-Impurity Problem: It is difficult to isolate the contribution of a single executive process because many tasks involve multiple processes simultaneously.
Unclear Number and Nature of Executive Processes: There is ongoing debate about what constitutes an executive process.

Episodic Buffer

This system holds integrated information (chunks) in a multi-dimensional code.
It was added to Baddeley's working memory model in 2000.

Overall Evaluation of the Working Memory Model

The model is an improvement over the short-term store model by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), as it accounts for active processing and information storage and explains partial deficits in short-term memory observed in brain-damaged patients.
Despite strengths, the model is oversimplified and ignores other types of information (e.g., smell, touch) and spatial WM differences.
Further research is needed to clarify the number and nature of executive processes, particularly how the episodic buffer integrates information.

Simple Spans Underestimate Verbal Working Memory Capacity

Verbal working memory involves two main systems:
- Phonological Loop: Stores and rehearses verbal information.
- Central Attentional System: Manages attention and additional information.
The research indicates that individuals often underuse their working memory by trying to rehearse too many items.

Maxispan Procedure

This procedure was designed to maximize recall by having participants rehearse only a limited number of items, leaving the remaining items for the attentional system.
In three experiments, this method dramatically increased recall spans, especially when the rehearsed letters were presented auditorily and the remaining letters visually.

Reappraisals of Miller's (1956) Estimate

Miller's original estimate of seven items applies primarily to digits.
Researchers quickly proposed that the limit is actually three or four items, not seven.

Results

The maxispan procedure directed items into separate memory systems, optimizing recall performance for both blue and black letters.
The maxispan group had significantly higher spans compared to the simple span group.

Neurological Evidence

Distinct brain activations for articulatory rehearsal and attentional refreshing support the idea of two separate systems in verbal working memory.

Nature of Different Systems

The maxispan procedure indicates two separate systems in verbal working memory: the phonological loop and an executive loop.
The phonological loop relies on rehearsal, while the executive loop relies on attentional maintenance.

Conclusion

Short-term memory (STM) spans are not limited by a single buffer but are influenced by two distinct storage systems: the articulatory loop and the attentional central system.
Simple span tasks do not solely reflect the capacity of one cognitive structure.
The maxispan procedure reveals deeper insights into STM. However, it does not replace traditional simple span tasks, which have been useful in assessments for over a century.
Understanding what these tasks measure enhances their diagnostic and prognostic power.

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Description

Test your knowledge on early research regarding short-term memory capacity limits. This quiz covers key concepts like the Brown/Peterson technique and the serial position effect. Understand how position in a list affects recall and the impact of distracting tasks on memory performance.