Psychology: Scales of Measurement

Psychological Assessment

Four Levels of Scales of Measurement

• Nominal: classification or categorization based on one or more distinguishing characteristics, only labels and categorizes observations, no quantitative distinctions.
• Ordinal: rank ordering on some characteristic, with a median.
• Interval: equal intervals, no absolute zero point, zero value does not mean none.
• Ratio: true zero point, a score of zero means none.

Distribution

• Distribution: a set of test scores arrayed for recording or study.
• Raw Scores: straightforward, unmodified accounting of performance.
• Frequency Distribution: all scores listed alongside the number of times each score occurred.

Independent and Quasi-Independent Variables

• Independent Variable: being manipulated in the study.
• Quasi-Independent Variable: non-manipulated variable to designate groups.
• Factor: used in ANOVA.

Post-Hoc Tests

• Post-Hoc Tests: used in ANOVA to determine which mean differences are significantly different.
• Tukey's HSD test: allows computing a single value that determines the minimum difference between treatment means necessary for significance.

Measures of Central Tendency

• Measures of Central Tendency: statistics that indicate the average or midmost score between the extreme scores in a distribution.
• Mean: the average of all the raw scores, used for interval and ratio data.
• Median: the middle score of the distribution, used for ordinal, interval, and ratio data.
• Mode: the most frequently occurring score in the distribution, used for nominal scales.

Variability

• Variability: an indication of how scores in a distribution are scattered or dispersed.
• Measures of Variability: statistics that describe the amount of variation in a distribution.
• Range: the difference between the highest and lowest score.
• Quartile: dividing points between the four quarters in the distribution.
• Standard Deviation: the square root of the average squared deviations about the mean.

Scaling Test Scores

• Stanine: a method of scaling test scores on a nine-point standard scale.
• Linear Transformation: retains a direct numerical relationship to the original raw score.
• Non-Linear Transformation: required when the data is not normally distributed.
• Normalizing the Distribution: involves stretching the skewed curve into the shape of a normal curve.

Hypothesis Testing

• Hypothesis Testing: a statistical method that uses sample data to evaluate a hypothesis about a population.
• Alternative Hypothesis: states there is a change, difference, or relationship.
• Null Hypothesis: no change, no difference, or no relationship.
• Alpha Level or Level of Significance: used to define the concept of "very unlikely" in a hypothesis test.

Levels of Tests

• Level A: anyone under the direction of a supervisor or consultant.
• Level B: psychometricians and psychologists only.
• Level C: psychologists only.

Interview

• Method of Gathering Information: through distinct communication involving reciprocal exchange.
• Types of interviews:
  • Structured
  • Unstructured
  • Semi-structured
  • Non-directive

Mental Status Examination

• Determines the Mental Status: of the patient.

Intake Interview

• Determine Why: the client came for assessment.
• Chance to Inform: the client about the policies, fees, and process involved.

Social Case

• Biographical Sketch: of the client.

Employment Interview

• Determine Whether: the candidate is suitable for hiring.

Panel Interview (Board Interview)

• More than One Interviewer: participates in the assessment.

Motivational Interview

• Used by Counselors: to gather information about some problematic behavior, while simultaneously attempting to address it therapeutically.

Issues Addressed by Structured Interviews

• Criterion Variance: amount of error caused by vague guidelines for exclusion or inclusion in different categories.
• Information Variance: variability in amount and type of information derived from interviews with clients.

Portfolio

• Samples of One's Ability: and accomplishment.
• Purpose: usually in industrial settings for evaluation of future performances.

Case History Data

• Records, Transcripts, and Other Accounts: that preserve archival information, official and informal accounts, and other data and items relevant to an assessee.

Behavioral Observation

• Monitoring of Actions: of others or oneself by visual or electronic means, while recording quantitative and/or qualitative information regarding those actions.
• Types of observations:
  • Naturalistic
  • Role Play

Computers

• Using Technology: to assess clients, serving as test administrators and efficient test scorers.

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 5th.Ed.(SB-5)

• Age Range: 2-85 years old.
• Individually Administered: normed, age scale and point-scale format.
• Originally Created: to identify mentally disabled children in Paris.

Aptitude Tests

• Raven's Progressive Matrices (RPM): measures analytical and reasoning ability in abstract and novel situations.
• Purdue Non-Language Test: measures fluid intelligence.
• Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children-II (KABC-II): assesses cognitive development in children.
• Differential Aptitude Scale - Fifth Edition (DAT-V): assesses an individual's aptitudes across various domains.

Critical Thinking Test

• Watson Glaser Critical Thinking Test (W-GCTA): designed to assess a person's critical thinking abilities.

Mental Alertness Tests

• Thurstone Test of Mental Alertness (TMA): measures sensitivity to a range of clinical conditions.

Personality Tests

• Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI-2): measures various clinical symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and obsessiveness-compulsiveness.
• Neo Personality Inventory-NEO-PI-R: measures the extent to which an individual endorses 30 facets of the Five-Factor Model (FFM) of personality.

Other Tests

• Rorschach Inkblot Test: measures an individual's perception of ambiguous stimuli.
• Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): measures an individual's attitudes and values.
• Sentence Completion Test: measures an individual's thoughts and feelings.### Personality Theories
• Aesthetics (O2): Measure of interest in and absorption by art, beauty, and nature's inherent beauty.
• Feelings (O3): Measure of openness to one's inner emotional life, including deep emotions and their value in the human experience.
• Actions (O4): Measure of behavioral aspects of openness, relating to trying new activities, foods, and places.
• Ideas (O5): Measure of cognitive aspect of openness related to intellectual curiosity.
• Values (O6): Measure of willingness to re-examine one's values in the face of different worldviews, cultures, and a changing world.

Agreeableness

• Measure of kind of interactions an individual prefers, from compassion to tough-mindedness.
• Measures attitudes about the trustworthiness and goodness of others, and behaviors related to respecting, empathizing with, and deferring to others.
• High: Sympathetic, willing to help, cooperative, believes others are generally decent and honest.
• Low: Skeptical of others, expecting competition and challenge, sarcastic, and stubborn.

Folk Scales

• Capacity for Status
• Sociability
• Social Presence
• Self-Acceptance
• Sense of Well-Being
• Responsibility
• Socialization
• Self-Control
• Tolerance
• Good Impression
• Communality
• Achievement via Conformance
• Achievement via Independence
• Intellectual Efficiency
• Psychological Mindedness
• Femininity/Masculinity Independence
• Flexibility and Empathy

Strong Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII)

• Developed by E.K. Strong
• For individuals 15 years old and above
• Helps individuals identify their work personality by exploring their interests in six broad areas:
  • RIASEC

Thurstone Interest Schedule (TIS)

• Developed by Thurstone
• Designed as a counseling instrument to help individuals clarify their vocational interests
• Systematic checklist to explore vocational interests

Basic Personality Inventory (BPI)

• Developed by Douglas Jackson
• For adults and adolescents
• Self-report measure of general domain of psychopathology
• 240 true/false items, 11 substantive clinical scales, and one critical item scale

Dimensions

• Alienation
• Anxiety
• Denial
• Depression
• Deviation
• Hypochondriasis
• Impulse Expression
• Interpersonal Problems
• Persecutory Ideas
• Self-Depreciation
• Social Introversion
• Thinking Disorder

Projective Tests

Rorschach Inkblot Test

• Developed by Hermann Rorschach
• For individuals 5 years old and above
• Subjects describe what they see in 10 ambiguous inkblot images
• Once used to diagnose mental illnesses like schizophrenia
• Exner System: Coding system used in this test
• Content: Categories of objects used in patient responses
  • Nature
  • Animal Feature
  • Whole Human
  • Human Feature
  • Fictional/Mythical Human Detail
  • Sex

Determinants

• Form
• Movement
• Color
• Shading
• Pairs and Reflections

Location

• W- The whole inkblot was used to depict an image
• D- Commonly described part of the blot was used
• Dd- An uncommonly described or unusual detail was used
• S- The white space in the background was used

Thematic Apperception Test

• Developed by Christiana Morgan and Henry Murray
• For individuals 5 years old and above
• 31 picture cards serve as stimuli for stories and descriptions about relationships or social situations
• Popularly known as the picture interpretation

Children's Apperception Test

• Developed by Bellak and Bellak
• For children 3-10 years old
• Based on the idea that animals engaged in various activities stimulate projective storytelling in children

Hand Test

• Developed by Edward Wagner
• For individuals 5 years old and above
• Used to measure action tendencies, particularly acting out and aggressive behavior, in adults and children
• 10 cards (1 blank)

Apperceptive Personality Test (APT)

• Developed by Holmstrom et al.
• Attempt to address criticisms of TAT
• Introduced objectivity in scoring system
• 8 cards include male and female of different ages and minority group members
• Testtakers respond to a series of multiple-choice questions

Validity/Modifying Indices

• Invalidity (V): Person answers randomly
• Inconsistency (W): Expected to be answered both in the same direction
• Disclosure (X): Designed to measure whether a client's responses were open and revealing or defensive and secretive
• Desirability (Y): Measure of defensive responding
• Debasement (Z): Extent to which a person describes themselves in negative, pathological terms