Psychology Research Methods Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What defines a between-subject design in an independent groups experiment?

Each participant experiences all conditions.

Participants are paired into groups.

Independent variable is manipulated between subjects. (correct)

Control and experimental groups are the same.

Which scenario represents a within-subject design?

One group receives a treatment while another does not.

Each participant is only tested once.

A group experiences multiple conditions over time. (correct)

Two different samples are measured independently.

What is the purpose of calculating difference scores in dependent samples t-tests?

To compare means across two different samples.

To verify the normality of the dependent variable.

To reduce multiple scores to a single measure. (correct)

To increase the number of scores analyzed.

What assumption must be met for using an independent samples t-test?

The dependent variable should be normally distributed. Signup and view all the answers

When calculating degrees of freedom for a dependent samples t-test, what should be considered?

Number of difference scores obtained. Signup and view all the answers

In an in situ design, what is essential for forming multiple samples?

Random sampling from the population is required. Signup and view all the answers

Which statistical test should be used if participants are in both the control and experimental groups?

Dependent samples t-test. Signup and view all the answers

How is the independent samples t-test logically similar to the one sample t-test?

Both involve checking means against a common value. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes scientific skepticism from other ways of acquiring knowledge?

It requires evidence and systematic questioning. Signup and view all the answers

Which method of acquiring knowledge is characterized by the absence of conscious reasoning?

Intuition Signup and view all the answers

What principle entails that a cause must precede its effect?

Temporal precedence Signup and view all the answers

In which framework are human behaviors believed to be influenced by celestial bodies?

Astrology Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the goals of scientific psychology?

To predict behavior Signup and view all the answers

Which philosophical system focuses on empirical observation to form knowledge?

Positivism Signup and view all the answers

What is a major problem with acquiring knowledge through authority?

Authorities may not possess genuine expertise. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about replication in research is true?

Replication allows others to verify the study's results. Signup and view all the answers

What is the median when there is an odd number of scores?

The score that divides the distribution in half Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of pooled variance in statistical analysis?

To create a weighted average of sample variances Signup and view all the answers

Which scenario is the precise median most appropriately used?

When the data includes extreme scores or skewed distributions Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant characteristic of a one-tailed test compared to a two-tailed test?

More likely to result in Type I error Signup and view all the answers

What measure describes the average distance from the mean in a dataset?

Standard deviation Signup and view all the answers

What does the interquartile range measure?

The range covered by the middle 50% of scores Signup and view all the answers

In correlation analysis, what is the consequence of nonlinearity in the data?

It can lead to a low or nonsignificant r value Signup and view all the answers

What type of mean is typically used for rates, such as speed?

Harmonic mean Signup and view all the answers

Which type of correlation is used when one variable is continuous and the other is dichotomous?

Point-biserial rpb Signup and view all the answers

How is the range defined in terms of a data set?

The difference between the highest and lowest score Signup and view all the answers

What does the coefficient of determination, R², indicate in correlation analysis?

The percentage of variance explained by one variable Signup and view all the answers

What is a frequency distribution?

An organized tabulation of individuals within different measurement categories Signup and view all the answers

What should be examined first before calculating a correlation to identify potential issues?

Scatter plot Signup and view all the answers

Why might standard deviation not be reported in some instances?

It may be difficult to compute with certain software Signup and view all the answers

What is a notable downside to using a two-tailed test?

It can overlook small but real differences Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true about causation in correlation analysis?

No causal statements can be made from correlation Signup and view all the answers

What describes a situational variable in research design?

The characteristics of the situation or environment. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of correlational studies?

To observe and measure relationships between variables. Signup and view all the answers

In the example of bystander intervention, what is the response variable?

The likelihood of someone intervening in an emergency. Signup and view all the answers

What defines experimental research?

Direct manipulation and control of independent variables. Signup and view all the answers

What is a confounding variable?

A variable that affects only one measured variable. Signup and view all the answers

Which description accurately portrays the concept of 'converging operations'?

When various studies with different methods lead to the same conclusion. Signup and view all the answers

What could be a third variable influencing the relationship between exercise and happiness?

Physical fitness level. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of research design, what role does a mediating variable serve?

It explains the relationship between situational and response variables. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary method researchers rely on for disseminating their findings?

Refereed journal articles Signup and view all the answers

Which component of measurement refers to a person's actual score, independent of any measurement error?

True Score Signup and view all the answers

What major reasoning flaw do researchers commonly exhibit when proposing tests for a hypothesis?

Confirmation bias Signup and view all the answers

In the context of falsification, what is a more common outcome researchers face instead of outright rejection of theories?

Refinement of theories Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of following predefined formats in empirical reports?

To ensure the reports are easily understood Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the Wason Selection Task?

It necessitates identifying cards to disprove a conditional rule. Signup and view all the answers

What do researchers typically rely on when independent evaluations are required for their studies?

Refereed journal article reviews Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of scientific reasoning does the sequence '2, 4, 6' illustrate?

Deductive reasoning Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Metaphysical Systems

Supernatural explanations attribute behavior to non-physical forces like spirits and deities.
Animism suggests natural phenomena are alive and influence behavior.
Mythology/religion propose non-physical forces shape human actions.
Astrology attributes human behavior to celestial bodies; astronomical events predict behavior.

Philosophical Systems

Empiricism (David Hume) posits observation as the sole basis for knowledge.
Positivism (Auguste Comte) emphasizes observation using only senses for knowing.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

Intuition involves knowing or feeling likely outcomes instinctively.
Absence of conscious reasoning is a key feature of intuition.
Authority relies on accepting information from authoritative figures.
Scientific skepticism involves suspending judgment to consider multiple possibilities
Science necessitates changing perspective when new evidence emerges (unlike intuition or authority).
Determinism suggests events stem from systematic, predetermined causes.

Covariation of Cause and Effect

A cause must be present when an effect is present, and absent when the effect is absent.
Temporal precedence means the cause must precede the effect.
Elimination of alternative explanations ensures the identified cause is the only responsible factor.

Goals of Scientific Psychology

Describe behavior
Predict behavior
Determine the cause of behavior
Explain behavior

Types of Research

Basic research aims to answer fundamental questions.
Applied research addresses practical problems.

Four Keys of Research

Replication: Enable others to repeat the study and verify results.
Testability/falsifiability: Focus on ideas that can be tested and disproven.
Peer review ensures quality checks on published studies.
Adversarial process involves comparing differing theories and ideas to formulate new hypotheses, experiments or analyses.

Pseudoscience

Pseudoscience hypotheses aren't falsifiable.
Methodology isn't scientific, often relying on anecdotal evidence, authority, or lack of citation.
Claims aren't revised to account for contradictory information.

Biorhythms

Human behavior is cyclic, governed by 23-, 28-, and 33-day cycles for physical, emotional, and intellectual states.

Homeopathy

Substances causing symptoms in healthy individuals can cure the same symptoms in sick people.

Phrenology

Personality traits are linked to skull bumps.

Critical Evaluation of Research

Assess data sources' credibility and potential conflicts of interest.
Check for funding biases.

Introduction to Statistics

Statistics is a decision-making process, aiding in understanding data patterns.
Descriptive statistics measure characteristics (mean, median, standard deviation).
Inferential statistics uses sample data to make inferences about larger populations.

Displays of Data

Properly formatted charts and tables are used in statistics.
Cause-and-effect relationships require careful visualizations to avoid misinterpretations.

Frequency Distribution

Frequency distributions summarize the frequency of data points in different categories.

Three Common Distributions

Mode: most frequent data occurrence
Median: middle value in sorted data
Mean: average of data points

Ethical Concerns in Research

Risk assessment and informed consent are crucial considerations in research involving humans or animals.
Potential risks and benefits to participants must be analysed and balanced.
Institutions like CIHR, NSERC, and SSHRC have guidelines for research involving humans and animals.
Participants should have the free choice to participate, without duress.

Withholding Information and Deception

Withholding information can affect participants and invalidate the study findings.
Deception is sometimes necessary, but ethics boards have strong limits in certain study types.

Debriefing

Debriefing is required when experiments impact a participant's psychological or physiological state.

Animal Research Ethics

Research ethics committees ensure animal welfare.

Descriptive Statistics

Document sources, characteristics, and appropriate comparisons for statistical data.

Random Sampling/Biased Sampling

Random sampling ensures each member of the population has an equal chance of being in the sample.

Variable Types

Discrete variable values are mutually exclusive (indivisible categories e.g. number of children in a family).
Continuous variable values can be measured on a continuous scale (e.g. age, height).
Dichotomous variable values have two distinct categories (e.g. male/female).

Measurement Scales

Nominal: conveys information about categories but cannot show order.
Ordinal: has nominal features plus an order, but interval sizes are not consistent.
Interval: has ordinal features plus equal intervals, but the zero point is arbitrary.
Ratio: has interval features plus a meaningful zero point.

Central Tendency

Mean: the average.
Median: the middle value.
Mode: the most frequent value.

Variability

Range: difference between highest and lowest score in a distribution.
Interquartile range (IQR): middle 50% of the distribution
Standard deviations: describes the typical distance of scores from the mean.

Standard Deviation

Describes the average or typical distance in data points from the mean.

Percentile

A percentile describes the percentage of scores in a distribution that are below or equal to a particular score.

Normal Distributions and Z-scores

Normal distributions are common in data sets.
Z-scores describe how many standard deviations a score is from the mean of the distribution.

Sampling

Population: The total group of people or entities of interest.
Sample: A subset of the population used for research.

Sampling Error

A sample statistic (e.g. average) can vary versus the parameter of interest (population average).

Probability of Sampling Error

The probability that the sample mean will deviate from the true population mean is quantified using the standard error.

One-Sample t-tests

When the population standard deviation is unknown, the t-test is used.

Dependent Sample t-tests

Used when individuals are measured more than once (or groups are naturally paired).

Independent Sample t-tests

Used with two groups composed of different individuals.
The assumption is that the two samples are independent of each other.

Correlation

Correlation represents the linear relationship between two variables.

Correlation Coefficient

Value of r (-1 to +1), indicating the strength and direction of the relationship.

Significance Tests

Significance tests provide the chance that obtained results occurred by chance.

Coefficient of Determination (R²)

The proportion of variance in one variable explained by the other variable.

Regression Analysis

Used to predict values of one variable based on values of one or more other variables.
Focus on the relationship between the dependent & independent variable.

Multiple Regression

Measures the relationship between multiple independent variables and one dependent variable.

Spearman's Correlation

Measures the degree of association between ordinal variables.
Focuses on the monotonic relationship (direction).

Point-Biserial Correlation

The correlation between one continuous and one dichotomous variable.

Phi Correlation

Used to measure the degree of association between two dichotomous variables.

Content Validity

The test measures all the intended aspects of the construct(s).

Predictive Validity

The ability of a measure to forecast future behaviour.

Concurrent Validity

The extent to which scores are related to a criterion measured at the same time.

Convergent Validity

Scores on a measure relate to scores on other measures of similar constructs.

Discriminant Validity

Scores on a measure do NOT relate to measures of different constructs.

Face Validity

The measure appears, at superficial level, to measure what it intends to.

Reactivity

Presence of the researcher impacts participant behaviour.
Participants modify behaviour due to awareness of being observed.

Reliability

Consistency of measurement.
Test-retest reliability concerns consistency over time.
Internal consistency examines consistency among items within a measure.
Inter-rater reliability estimates agreement among different raters.

Validity

Accuracy and appropriateness of a measurement.
Content validity ensures the measure covers important aspects of the construct.
Criterion-related validity links the measure to a relevant criterion.
Construct validity indicates how well a measure captures conceptual underpinnings.
Face validity assesses how well the measure seems to capture what it purports to measure.

Experimental Control

Holding variables, other than independent variable, constant allows researchers to isolate the effects of the independent variable.
Minimizing extraneous factors reduces interference in the study results.

Third Variables (Confounding Variables)

Factors that can influence both the independent and dependent variables.

Artificial Settings

Studies conducted in controlled environments that might not fully reflect real-world circumstances.

Participant Variables

Characteristics of participants such as age, gender, background, socioeconomic status.

Issues with Experiments

Artificiality in setting.
Ethical considerations in involving participants.
Participant differences across different study groups.

Descriptive Research

Describe the characteristics and behaviors of a group or event.
Non-experimental studies gather data but do not manipulate variables.

Statistical Analyses

Used to evaluate data patterns for strength and existence of a relationship between variables.

Interpretation of Results

Integrating previous research or theory to explain observed effects or relationships.

Qualitative Research

Interpretations focused on understanding human experiences within a specific context.
Involves generating meaning from data in a conversational context.

Archival Research

Uses existing data sources (historical records, public records, polling statistics, communication reports) to generate new insights and interpret patterns.

Observation (Quantitative & Qualitative)

Quantitative: involves observing and quantifying behaviours.
Qualitative: involves describing and interpreting behaviours and experiences within the context of the setting of study.
Concealed observation has ethical issues, yet can be useful.
Participation in observation may change participant behaviour.

Naturalistic Observation

Involves observing behavior in natural settings without manipulations.

Systematic Observation

Focuses on observing specific behaviours.
Useful when looking for common or recurring features in behaviour.

Case Studies

An in-depth analysis of individuals or groups over time (also known as longitudinal studies).
Useful for investigating rare or unusual occurrences.

Research Hypotheses

More specific versions of theories.

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Description

Test your understanding of key concepts in psychology research methods, including between-subject designs, within-subject designs, and statistical analyses like t-tests. This quiz covers essential principles and assumptions necessary for conducting experiments in psychology.